Research Article

Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Vietnamese Fermented Foods

Trang Nguyen Phan*, Loc Bao Nguyen, Thi Anh Ngoc Tong

Department of Food Technology, Institute of Food and Biotechnology, Can Tho University, Vietnam.

Received | September 16, 2024; Accepted | November 12, 2024; Published | December 03, 2024

*Correspondence | Trang Nguyen Phan, Department of Food Technology, Institute of Food and Biotechnology, Can Tho University, Vietnam; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Phan TN, Nguyen LB, Tong TAN (2025). Antibiotic resistance in lactic acid bacteria isolated from vietnamese fermented foods. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 13(1): 36-42.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2025/13.1.36.42

ISSN (Online) | 2307-8316; ISSN (Print) | 2309-3331

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) have emerged as a significant public health challenge in recent decades. The improper use and overuse of antibiotics significantly contribute to the rise of antibiotic resistance in Southeast Asia, with Vietnam having one of the highest rates of antibiotic usage worldwide (Thapa et al., 2020). Additionally, the increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria (MDR) (resistant to more than three different antibiotics) complicates the treatment of diseases, often leaving no effective medications available (Verraes et al., 2013). Food products can be contaminated with resistant bacteria due to slaughter or cultivating handling or during processing. These facts highlight the complexity of antibiotic resistance in the food chain and the potential public health risk posed by transferring resistance genes from food to humans (Abriouel et al., 2017). Therefore, ensuring bacteria’s safety in the food chain is critical, especially in fermented foods.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are safe since they lack pathogenicity and confer several health benefits (Khan and Ahmad, 2020). This makes LAB the most freely consumed bacterial group, especially in fermented foods. Traditional production of fermented foods often relies on wild microflora, leading to a spontaneous and uncontrolled process of lactic acid fermentation. This results in nonuniform product quality and safety. Hence, not only do fermented foods provide beneficial microorganisms, but they can also be reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant bacteria at which antibiotic-resistance genes can be transferred to other pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract (Anal et al., 2020; Wolfe, 2023). In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of reports documenting antibiotic resistance in LAB strains, indicating alarming concern for food safety and public health (Duche et al., 2023; Haryani et al., 2023; Kanak and Yilmaz, 2021; Ojha et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2017). This directly threatens human health because fermented foods are often consumed raw (vegetables, meat, etc.). In contrast, the spread of antibiotic resistance genes from starter cultures to fermented foods and humans is significant. Understanding these pathways helps develop strategies to minimize the spread of ARB through the food chain and the environment (Figure 1).

 

Vietnamese traditional fermented food, especially pork and vegetable fermented, has been consumed for centuries. These foods depend on the microorganisms present in raw materials or the environment, which can pose certain risks. Moreover, limited investigation has focused on evaluating safety regarding the antibiotic resistance profile of lactic bacteria strains isolated from these foods. Thus, the present study seeks to isolate and identify the presence of multidrug resistance in LAB isolated from Vietnamese traditional fermented foods.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samplings

In this study, 18 samples of two types of fermented foods consumed regularly were obtained from individual branding in different provinces of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta. These foods were as follows: nem chua (n = 9), uncooked comminuted pork (P); dua cai (n = 9), mustard green (Brassica juncea L. (V)). These foods were spontaneously fermented by the natural LAB from raw materials, equipment, or the environment.

Isolation and Characterization of LAB

For isolating LAB, 10 g of each sample was homogenized with 90 mL of sterile saline solution into Stomacher® bags (Interscience, Ile-de-France, France). The samples were then subjected to decimal serial dilution and plated on Man–Rogosa–Sharpe (MRS) agar (Himedia, India). The plates were incubated for 48 h at 37°C, and the colonies were streaked out repeatedly on MRS agar to obtain single bacterial colonies. These LAB isolates were phenotypically examined for Gram staining, catalase activity, oxidase test, indole test, motility, and degradation CaCO3. Moreover, some LAB characterization in terms of the pH value, total acidity, and production of CO2 was investigated. The pH value was measured using a pH meter and calibrated with a buffer solution with pH values of 3 and 7 (AOAC, 2005). The ability of LAB to produce carbon dioxide was evaluated based on whether air bubbles were observed in the culture medium of MRS by the Durham test tube (Karen Reiner, 2016). The acid content of bacterial cultures was assessed using a titration method with 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution and phenolphthalein as the indicator (Melia et al., 2021).

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test

The antibiotic susceptibility of LAB isolates was determined using the standard disc Kirby–Bauer diffusion method. In this method, we measured the diameter of the zone of inhibition around each LAB isolate in response to various antibiotics, using millimeters as the unit of measurement. Then, the results were interpreted according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines, which specify the inhibition zone diameter criteria to classify the isolates as susceptible, intermediate, or resistant to the tested antibiotics (CLSI, 2021).

The Multiple Antibiotic Resistance (MAR) index of the LAB isolates was calculated using the following formula: MAR index = x/y. In this formula, x represents the number of antibiotics to which the isolates showed resistance, while y denotes the total number of antibiotics used in the susceptibility test (Costa et al., 2020).

Identification of LAB Isolated from Fermented Foods

The identity of LAB isolates was further confirmed using standard genus-specific PCR, as previously described by Abe Sato et al. (2021). Subsequently, species-level identification of the confirmed LAB was performed through 16S rRNA-based sequencing. The resulting nucleotide sequences were compared to those using the BLAST algorithm in the NCBI database.

Statistic Analysis

The results and graph were statistically processed and analyzed using the SPSS Statistics and Microsoft Excel software. Statistical analysis was performed using Tukey’s test (p < 0.05) comparison test to assess the differences between the means of the pH value and total acidity parameters.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Phenotypic Identification of LAB Isolates

Recently, most commercial LAB starter cultures have extensively been employed in the dairy industry and, to a lesser extent, for other fermented products. Due to the potential transfer of antibiotic resistance genes between pathogenic bacteria and harmless or beneficial bacteria, such as LAB, the increased risk of spreading resistance poses a significant threat to human health (Dufossé et al., 2022). Therefore, it is essential to investigate the safety of the consumers of the existence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria among LAB used as wild starter cultures in traditional fermented foods. Nem chua and dua cai are traditional products in Vietnam that are produced through spontaneous lactic acid fermentation, which is highly dependent on the initial microflora present in the raw materials. In this study, 18 samples, including nem chua and dua cai, were collected in local markets in several provinces in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta. From the meat and vegetable-fermented foods, a total of 24 LAB isolates were obtained. Eighteen of these isolates were presumptively identified based on phenotypic characterization. The identified characteristics included being Gram-positive, catalase-negative, oxidase-negative, indole-negative, non-motile, and showing the ability to degrade CaCO3 to CaO and CO2. These features are typical of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Additionally, to evaluate the fermentation efficiency of these LAB regarding their technological properties, the results of the pH value and production of total acidity and CO2 from glucose are presented in Table 1. Overall, this outcome revealed that the range of pH value was 3.38 ÷ 6.19, while the total acidity was 6.84 ÷ 28.28 mg/mL. Interestingly, the pH value of LAB isolates from vegetable-fermented food was lower than that of meat-fermented products (3.38 ÷ 4.45 vs. 3.69 ÷ 6.19). Hence, the lactic acid amount of LAB isolates from vegetable-fermented food was higher than that of meat-fermented products, 19.07 ÷ 28.08 and 6.84 ÷ 24.06 mg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, based on the presence of gas bubbles in the liquid MRS broth, most LAB isolates can produce CO2 from glucose, indicating that these LAB perform heterolactic fermentation. Notably, differences in LAB species may lead to variations in these investigated parameters. The decrease in pH, increase in total acidity, and type of lactic fermentation have significantly affected fermentation time and product quality. These facts significantly impact the shelf life and safety of fermented foods since the growth of spoilage and pathogens bacteria are inhibited (Lund et al., 2020). Moreover, it is significant to monitor the antibiotic resistance of the wild LAB used in manufactured food products due to the excessive utilization of antibiotics in agriculture and livestock farming.

 

Table 1: pH, total acidity, and CO2 production from LAB isolates.

No.of isolates	Isolate code	pH	Total acidity (mg/mL)	CO2 production
1	MC3	4.34±0.06ef	19.07±0.35e	+
2	MC6	4.48±0.07fg	17.51±0.69d	+
3	MC8	3.96±0.02cd	22.47±0.16fg	+
4	MC9	3.38±0.10a	28.28±0.51j	+
5	MC12	3.57±0.07ab	21.30±1.43f	+
6	MC15	4.45±0.18f	19.23±0.11e	+
7	MC16	3.865±0.08cd	23.07±0.69gh	+
8	MC23	3.74±0.21bc	27.33±0.69ij	+
9	MC29	3.93±0.06cd	26.76±0.35i	+
10	S2	6.19±0.25i	6.84±0.40a	-
11	S7	4.76±0.02g	13.26±0.23c	+
12	S8	3.98±0.11cd	24.06±1.39h	-
13	S9	4.60±0.11fg	16.79±0.79d	+
14	C2	4.15±0.21de	19.40±0.35e	+
15	C3	5.85±0.23h	9.04±0.28b	+
16	C6	3.69±0.07bc	12.60±0.69c	+
17	C9	6.12±0.19hi	8.54±0.43b	+
18	C17	4.58±0.01fg	16.61±0.35d	+

 

Note: Means followed by different letters in the same column reveal significant differences (p<0.05).

 

Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of LAB

Assessing the antibiotic resistance of LAB is crucial for ensuring their safety in various applications. The antibiotic susceptibility profile of LAB isolates from Vietnamese traditional foods, tested against 12 different antibiotic discs, is presented in Figure 2. It can be observed that the 18 isolates were susceptible to ampicillin, meropenem, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline, while 88.89% of LAB showed resistance to colistin. Moreover, LAB isolated from vegetable-fermented foods exhibited higher resistance to various antibiotics than meat-fermented foods. The former were resistant to vancomycin (100%), nalidixic acid (100%), ciprofloxacin (88.89%), and cefoxitin (55.56%), whereas the latter exposed resistance to nalidixic acid (66.67%), vancomycin (55.56%), cefoxitin (44.44%), and ciprofloxacin (33.33%). In Figure 2, there was an exception where the resistant rate of LAB in meat-fermented foods was twice that of vegetable-fermented foods, at 22.22% and 11.11%, respectively. These findings are similar to those in previous studies by Sharma et al. (2017) and Yasmeen (2014), who revealed that LAB isolates from various fermented foods were sensitive to β-lactam antibiotics (ampicillin, meropenem), chloramphenicol, and tetracycline. According to Fraqueza (2015), LAB are sensitive to cell wall synthesis inhibitors, such as ampicillin, and protein synthesis inhibitors, such as chloramphenicol and tetracycline. Conversely, the high resistance to nalidixic acid and vancomycin in this study aligns with several reports by Aymerich et al. (2006), Imperial and Ibana (2016), and Sharma et al. (2016), suggesting the intrinsic resistance to these antibiotics. When a bacterial strain exhibits resistance to antimicrobials through phenotypic methods, it is crucial to further monitor the molecular basis of this resistance from a safety standpoint, enhancing both safety and effectiveness in combating bacterial infections.

 

MDR bacteria pose a significant challenge to public health systems worldwide regarding more complex infection treatment, higher medical costs, and increased mortality. In this study, 77.78% of LAB were MDR strains with various resistance patterns (Table 2). The result was relatively low as compared to 90%–100% of MDR-LAB derived from different fermented foods in Malaysia, India, and Sudan (Haryani et al., 2023; Ojha et al., 2023; Yasmeen, 2014). Nevertheless, the outcomes were higher than those from several studies reported in Nigeria at 50% and in China at 66% (Duche et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2019). The high number of MDR isolates reported in this work highlights a growing concern in the global battle against antimicrobial resistance. Furthermore, the MAR index is a valuable metric for assessing the level of antibiotic resistance in bacterial strains, with a MAR index higher than 0.2 indicating greater resistance and potential risks associated with using these strains (Reuben et al., 2020). In this study, Table 2 shows that 14 out of 18 LAB isolates had a MAR index above the threshold limit (0.2), whereas 4 out of 18 (C2, C3, S7, and S9) exhibited a MAR index below 0.2. Moreover, LAB originating from meat-fermented foods showed the highest MAR index at 0.58 (S8), followed by 0.5 (C6), while most remaining posed a low MAR index at 0.17 and 0.08. Conversely, all LAB isolates deriving from vegetable-fermented food demonstrated a high MAR index of 0.25 to 0.42. Hence, extensive future analysis will be necessary to investigate the mechanisms and distribution of MAR in more detail.

 

Table 2: Antibiotic resistance pattern and MAR index of LAB isolates derived from Vietnamese fermented foods.

Isolates	Antibiotic resistance profile	MAR index	%
S8	Va-Bt-Co-Cn-Ci-Ng-Ge	0.58	77.78a
C6	Va-Bt-Co-Cn-Ng-Ge	0.5
C17	Va-Bt-Co-Cn-Ci -Ng	0.5
MC3	Va-Co-Cn-Ci-Ng	0.42
MC15	Va-Co-Cn-Ci-Ng	0.42
MC9	Va-Co-Cn-Ci-Ng	0.42
MC16	Va-Co-Cn-Ci-Ng	0.42
MC23	Va-Co-Ci-Ng-Ge	0.42
MC6	Va-Cn-Ci-Ng	0.33
MC8	Va-Co-Ci-Ng	0.33
MC12	Va-Co-Ci-Ng	0.33
S9	Va-Co-Cn-Ng	0.33
MC29	Va-Co-Ng	0.25
S2	Va -Ci -Ng	0.25
C2	Bt - Co	0.17	22.22b
C3	Co-Ng	0.17
S7	Co	0.08
C9	Co	0.08

 

a Number of isolates resistant to three or more antibiotics over the total number of isolates; b Number of isolates resistant to two or fewer antibiotics over the total number of isolates.

 

Molecular Identification of LAB Isolates

Among 18 LAB isolates, 11 were selected for further molecular identification at the species level by 16 S rRNA sequencing based on the MAR index and varying antibiotic sensitivity patterns. After molecular identification, 11 isolates as characterized by vegetable-fermented foods (n = 4) and meat-fermented foods (n = 7) belonged to the species Pediococcus pentosaceus, Weissella confusa, Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, and Weissella paramesenteroides (Table 3).

 

Table 3: Identification by 16S rRNA gene sequence of selected LAB isolates.

Isolates	No. of resistant antibiotics	Closest relative	Identify (%)	Closest database match (accession number)
S8	7	Pediococcus pentosaceus	99.77	NR_042058.1
C6	6	Weissella confusa	99.66	NR_040816.1
C17	6	Limosilactobacillus fermentum	99.78	NR_113335.1
MC3	5	Limosilactobacillus fermentum	99.78	NR_113335.1
MC23	5	Limosilactobacillus fermentum	99.89	NR_113335.1
MC6	4	Limosilactobacillus fermentum	100	NR_113335.1
S9	4	Weissella paramesenteroides	100	NR_104568.1
S2	3	Pediococcus pentosaceus	100	NR_113335.1
MC29	3	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum	100	MF_405259.1
C2	2	Weissella confusa	99.36	NR_040528.1
S7	1	Weissella paramesenteroides	100	NR_104568.1

 

Remarkably, Lactobacillus spp. was the only LAB genus found on vegetables-fermented foods, whereas meat-based products hosted a variety of LAB, including Pediococcus spp., Weissella spp., and Lactobacillus spp. The difference in genetic level may contribute to differences in characteristics of pH value and total acidity, antibiotics resistance profile, and MAR index, which were discussed in previous sections. These results highlight the diverse range of LAB isolates from meat-fermented products compared to those found in vegetable-fermented foods. Similar reports indicate that the major LAB originating from vegetable products is Lactobacillus spp., which differs from those found in meat-fermented products where Pediococcus spp., Weissella spp., and Lactobacillus spp. have been documented in Vietnam and Argentina (Phan et al., 2017; Sáez et al., 2018). Limosilactobacillus fermentum is known for its robustness and ability to adapt to a variety of environments, which might explain its presence in both types of fermented products. Still, the presence of additional ingredients and processing steps in meat-based products suggests that these environments support a broader diversity of LAB. Factors such as pH, salt concentration, temperature, and the natural microbial flora of the raw ingredients can play significant roles in determining which LAB species thrive in each type of food (Ruiz Rodríguez et al., 2019). Identifying wild LAB isolates and evaluating their safety and technological properties are essential for developing a starter culture for industrial-scale production. This minimizes the risk to public health and maintains the quality of products.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study showed the antibiotics resistance profile and identification of LAB involved in natural fermented foods. The significant number of MDR strains reported could exacerbate the existing global antimicrobial resistance issues and indicate threats of increasing antimicrobial resistance in Vietnam. Moreover, the differences in LAB species from meat and vegetable-fermented foods suggest the diversity of the microbial communities that develop during the wild fermentation process. Since LAB can be used as a starter culture or probiotic, further research on detecting antibiotic resistance genes and managing the risk of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in fermented foods is essential.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study is funded by the Can Tho University, Code: T2024-128.

NOVELTY STATEMENT

This study identifies the specific LAB strains involved in fermentation and assesses the antimicrobial susceptibility profile. Antibiotic resistance in LAB is an important concern because these bacteria are often used as probiotics in fermented foods, and resistance could potentially transfer to pathogenic bacteria.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS

Phan Nguyen Trang: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing, Funding acquisition. Nguyen Bao Loc: Formal analysis, Methodology, Software. Tong Thi Anh Ngoc: Software, Writing – review & editing.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES

Abe Sato ST, Marques JM, da Luz de Freitas A, Sanches PRC, Nunes MRT, Mota de Vasconcelos MJ, Gomes MF, Rogez H (2021). Isolation and genetic identification of endophytic Lactic acid bacteria from the Amazonian Açai Fruits: probiotics features of selected strains and their potential to inhibit pathogens. Front. Microbiol., 11: e610524. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.610524

Abriouel H, Knapp CW, Gálvez A, Benomar N (2017). Antibiotic resistance profile of microbes from traditional fermented foods. In Fermented Foods in Health Dis. Prev., 675-704. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802309-9.00029-7

Anal AK, Perpetuini G, Petchkongkaew A, Tan R, Avallone S, Tofalo R, Nguyen HV, Chu-Ky S, Ho PH, Phan TT, Waché Y (2020). Food safety risks in traditional fermented food from South-East Asia. Food Control, 109: e106922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106922

AOAC (2005). Official methods of analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Benjamin Franklin Station. Washington.

Aymerich T, Martín B, Garriga M, Vidal-Carou MC, Bover-Cid S, Hugas M (2006). Safety properties and molecular strain typing of lactic acid bacteria from slightly fermented sausages. J. Appl. Microbiol., 100: 40-49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02772.x

CLSI (2021). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, CLSI Supplement M100, 31st. Wayne, PA: Clin. Lab. Stand. Inst.,

Costa M, da C, Cruz AIC, Bispo AS, da R, Ferreira MA, Costa JA, Evangelista-Barreto NS (2020). Occurrence and antimicrobial resistance of bacteria in retail market spices. Cienc. Rural, 50:4. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20190775

Duche RT, Singh A, Wandhare AG, Sangwan V, Sihag MK, Nwagu TNT, Panwar H, Ezeogu LI (2023). Antibiotic resistance in potential probiotic lactic acid bacteria of fermented foods and human origin from Nigeria. BMC Microbiology, 23: 142. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-023-02883-0

Dufossé L, Oguntoyinbo FA, Ligocka A, Skowron K, Budzy´nska A, Budzy´nska B, Grudlewska-Buda K, Wiktorczyk-Kapischke N, Andrzejewska M, Wałecka-Zacharska E, Gospodarek-Komkowska E (2022). Two faces of fermented foods-the benefits and threats of its consumption. Front. Microbiol., 13: 841566. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.845166

Fraqueza MJ (2015). Antibiotic resistance of lactic acid bacteria isolated from dry-fermented sausages. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 212: 76-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.04.035

Haryani Y, Halid NA, Guat GS, Nor-Khaizura MAR, Hatta MAM, Sabri S, Radu S, Hasan H (2023). High prevalence of multiple antibiotic resistance in fermented food-associated lactic acid bacteria in Malaysia. Food Control, 147: 109558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109558

Imperial ICVJ, Ibana JA (2016). Addressing the antibiotic resistance problem with probiotics: Reducing the risk of its double-edged sword effect. Front. Microbiol., 7: 1983. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01983

Kanak EK, Yilmaz SÖ (2021). Identification, antibacterial and antifungal effects, antibiotic resistance of some lactic acid bacteria. Food Sci. Technol., 41: 174-182. https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.07120

Karen Reiner (2016). Carbohydrate Fermentation Protocol. Am. Soc. Microbiol.,

Khan I, Ahmad S (2020). Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) fermented food and their therapeutic importance. In Funct. Food Prod. Sustainable Health, 219-233. Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4716-4_14

Lund PA, De Biase D, Liran O, Scheler O, Mira NP, Cetecioglu Z, Fernández EN, Bover-Cid S, Hall R, Sauer M, O’Byrne C (2020). Understanding how microorganisms respond to acid pH is central to their control and successful exploitation. Front. Microbiol., 11: 556140. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.556140

Melia S, Juliyarsi I, Kurnia YF, Pratama YE, Azahra H (2021). Examination of titratable acidity, pH, total lactic acid bacteria and sensory properties in whey fermented with probiotic Pediococcus acidilactic BK01. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci., 10: 114-119. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2022/10.1.114.119

Ojha AK, Shah NP, Mishra V, Emanuel N, Taneja NK (2023). Prevalence of antibiotic resistance in lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditional fermented Indian food products. Food Sci. Biotechnol., 32: 2131-2143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-023-01305-1

Phan YTN, Tang MT, Tran TTM, Nguyen VH, Nguyen TH, Tsuruta T, Nishino N (2017). Diversity of lactic acid bacteria in vegetable-based and meat-based fermented foods produced in the central region of Vietnam. AIMS Microbiology, 3:61-70. https://doi.org/10.3934/microbiol.2017.1.61

Reuben RC, Roy PC, Sarkar SL, Rubayet Ul Alam ASM, Jahid IK (2020). Characterization and evaluation of lactic acid bacteria from indigenous raw milk for potential probiotic properties. J. Dairy Sci., 103: 1223-1237. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17092

Ruiz Rodríguez LG, Mohamed F, Bleckwedel J, Medina R, De Vuyst L, Hebert EM, Mozzi F (2019). Diversity and functional properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from wild fruits and flowers present in northern Argentina. Front. Microbiol., 10: 1091. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.01091

Sáez GD, Flomenbaum L, Zárate G (2018). Lactic acid bacteria from Argentinean fermented foods: isolation and characterization for their potential use as starters for fermentation of vegetables. Food Technol. Biotechnol., 56: 398-410. https://doi.org/10.17113/ftb.56.03.18.5631

Sharma C, Gulati S, Thakur N, Singh BP, Gupta S, Kaur S, Mishra SK, Puniya AK, Gill JPS, Panwar H (2017). Antibiotic sensitivity pattern of indigenous lactobacilli isolated from curd and human milk samples.Biotech, 7: 53-67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-017-0682-0

Sharma P, Tomar SK, Sangwan V, Goswami P, Singh R (2016). Antibiotic resistance of Lactobacillus sp. isolated from commercial probiotic preparations. J. Food Saf., 36: 38-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfs.12211

Thapa SP, Shrestha S, Anal AK (2020). Addressing the antibiotic resistance and improving the food safety in food supply chain (farm-to-fork) in Southeast Asia. Food Control, 108: 106809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106809

Verraes C, Van Boxstael S, Van Meervenne E, Van Coillie E, Butaye P, Catry B, de Schaetzen MA, Van Huffel X, Imberechts H, Dierick K, Daube G, Saegerman C, De Block J, Dewulf J, Herman L (2013). Antimicrobial resistance in the food chain: A review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 10: 2643-2669. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10072643

Wang K, Zhang H, Feng J, Ma L, Fuente-Núñez C, Wang S, Lu X (2019). Antibiotic resistance of lactic acid bacteria isolated from dairy products in Tianjin, China. J. Agric. Food Res., 1: e100006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2019.100006

Wolfe BE (2023). Are fermented foods an overlooked reservoir of antimicrobial resistance? Curr. Opin. Food Sci., 51: 101018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2023.101018

Yasmeen YRMS (2014). Incidence of antibiotic resistance of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from various Sudanese fermented foods. J. Food Nutr. Disord., 3: 6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2324-9323.1000161