Research Article

Identification of Influencing Factors for Optimal Adoptability of High Efficiency Irrigation System (HEIS) in Punjab, Pakistan

Hafiz Umar Farid1, Muhammad Zubair2, Zahid Mahmood Khan1, Aamir Shakoor1*, Behzad Mustafa1, Aftab Ahmad Khan3, Muhamad Naveed Anjum4, Ijaz Ahmad5 and Muhammad Mubeen6

1Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan; 2National Engineering Services (Ltd.) Pakistan (NESPAK); 3Global Change Impact Studies Center, Islamabad, Pakistan; 4Division of Hydrology Water-Land Resources in Cold and Arid Regions, Cold and Arid Region Environmental and Engineering Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China; 5Center of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering (CEWRE), University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan; 6Department of Environmental Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus-Pakistan-61100.

Received | April 25, 2018; Accepted | Febraury 25, 2019; Published | April 29, 2019

*Correspondence | Aamir Shakoor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Farid, H.U., M. Zubair, Z.M. Khan, A. Shakoor, B. Mustafa, A.A. Khan, M.N. Anjum, I. Ahmad and M. Mubeen. 2019. Identification of influencing factors for optimal adoptability of High Efficiency Irrigation System (HEIS) in Punjab, Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 35(2): 539-549.

DOI | http://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2019/35.2.539.549

Keywords | Water saving techniques, Water use efficiency, Functional / non-functional systems, Sustainability, Adoptability

Introduction

Agriculture has major share in Pakistan’s economy (19.8 % of GDP) and it accounts for 42.3 % of the country’s labor force (PES, 2016). Agronomic sector mainly depends on country’s crop productions however the crop productivity per unit of water is declining (Tariq, 2005; Ahmed, 2007; Jayakumar et al., 2015). Average negative growth of 6.25 % was reported for the fiscal year of 2015-16 due to various reasons including hostile climate and declining available water (Briscoe and Qamar, 2006; Khan, 2006; Wasti, 2016). The water availability during the Rabi season of 2015-16 was reported to be nearly 10 % less than its typical level. On the other hand, water demand has increased at an alarming rate of 1.5 MAF per year to accelerate the crop productivity. Consequently, the water shortage is expected to reach 31 % by 2025 (Ahsen, 2018). The irrigation water is also considered as one of the major contributor in crop productivity enhancement and poverty alleviation (Huang et al., 2006; Dinye, 2013; Mongat et al., 2015). However, there is a strong need to adopt high efficiency irrigation systems (HEIS) as water saving techniques. HEIS such as drip and sprinkler can be tried and tested for enhancing water and fertilizer application efficiency. It has been reported in the preceding literature that HEIS can increase the crop yield up to 27 % and water saving can be achieved upto 68% as compared to conventional irrigation methods (Latif et al., 2016). Water saving techniques of kind can also help to alleviate poverty in developing countries like Pakistan (Namara et al., 2007; Shakoor et al., 2012; Venot et al., 2014; Asif et al., 2016; Yao et al., 2017).

Recently, Pakistan has realized the necessity of HEIS, as it is evident from the fact that a large-scale project namely PIPIP (Punjab Irrigated-agriculture Productivity Improvement Project) has been commenced for implementation of drip and sprinkler irrigation systems over an area of about 0.05 million hectares (120,000 acres) throughout the Punjab province (DGA, 2011). Unfortunately, rate of adoption for HEIS in Pakistan is insignificant as compared to other countries. In USA and Australia, almost 50 % of the irrigated land receives water through HEIS, and even in a developing country like India 2 million hectares’ arable land is being irrigated by either drip or sprinkler irrigation as compared to a trivial figure of 0.008 million hectares in Pakistan (NMMI, 2010; NPSI, 2013; Perlman, 2014). However, high capital cost, rising prices, energy crisis, lack of technical knowledge and awareness about HEIS have been identified as major challenges in adoption and sustenance of HEIS. Furthermore, the limited capacity of sale and service companies (SSCs) for provision of after-installation services may aggravate the operational costs of HEIS (DGA, 2014; PMU, 2016).

Another major factor negatively effecting the adoption is the abandoning or non-functioning of drip and sprinkler irrigation systems after their installation. The non-functioning of drip and sprinkler systems creates negative perception among the farming’ community about this modern technology. It was also a prominent threat towards the progress and sustenance of any effort made to diffuse the modern technologies into Pakistan’s agriculture. With that being mentioned, a diagnostic study to identify the ground realities related to adoption and operation of HEIS through pointing out the major factors influencing the sustained functioning of a highly efficient irrigation system is the need of the time. A study of the aforementioned type will potentially not only increase the pace of adoption of HEIS, but it will also help farmers run their system for longer periods of time (Kulecho and Weatherhead, 2005). The present study is believed to achieve above mentioned objectives and benefits because availability of more and better knowledge about a modern technology eases its path to adoption (Hall and Khan, 2003).

A preliminary assay of the status of HEIS installed at various locations in Punjab, can lead to a conclusion that the envisaged objectives of setting up of these systems have not been fully realized. Many of the installed HEIS have been either abandoned or non-functional. Reasons for this failure are ambiguous yet as all the stakeholders including farmers, implementation agencies and managerial organizations are found blaming one another. Furthermore, farmers seem to adopt modern irrigation systems at a snail’s pace. This study aims to investigate the full picture behind the unsatisfactory success of already installed HEIS in a comprehensive and methodological way by defining the major factors concerning the fate of HEIS to aid planning, implementation and most importantly adoption of HEIS. Keeping in mind the deterministic and reductionist nature of this study, formulated methodology mainly comprises of three parts i.e. selection of sites, development of a comprehensive questionnaire for data collection and in turn defining the major factors concerning the adoption of HEIS.

Materials and Methods

Study area

Site selection plays a vital role to achieve the envisaged objectives of the research study. A well-defined sampling approach was adopted for selection of the sample sites which in turn will be a true representative of the entire study area. A total thirty (30) sites were selected from the installed/commissioned HEIS in Province of Punjab, Pakistan (Figure 1). These sites were selected on basis of established criteria i.e. areal distribution, crops, water source, pumping mechanism, power source and type of HEIS to ensure a real representative sample data and to achieve the objectives of the study.

Data Analysis: Economic analysis was done to evaluate the performance of conventional and modern high efficiency irrigation in terms of cost and benefit of growing crops, as it directly influences the profitability of a farmer and in turn sustainability of a system. HEIS with positive net benefit were presumed to be sustainable for longer periods of time. Net economic benefit for HEIS was determined using following Equation 1 (Bakhsh et al., 2015) and further correlated with functioning status of the site i.e., functional or non-functional.

Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS), a computer-based software capable of handling large amount of complex data entry and analysis through graphs and tables was used for defining the major factors concerning the fate of HEIS. SPSS is basically used to determine the relative contribution of various factors in the sustenance of HEIS sites (in terms of functioning status of sites). The SPSS software was used to find influencing factor using the collected data such as farmers’ literacy, farming experience, tenancy status/farmer presence, water quality, type of HEIS, water and power source, operation mechanism, provision of service after installation, and deployment of operator are considered as major factors to keep a HEIS in a working condition. Based on collected facts and figures from selected sites, influence of various important factors pertaining to farm characteristics, HEIS installed and economic analysis, on functioning status of HEIS was analyzed. Accordingly, working status of a HEIS site was expressed as a function of farmer’s literacy, farming experience, farm location, tenancy status, farming mode, power source, pumping mechanism, net benefit of HEIS over conventional methods of irrigation etc. Following Equation 2 is a mathematical representation of site functioning status (Machibya et al., 2004).

Through SPSS software, all the parameters were converted to either 1 or 0 to realistically evaluate their contribution to the functioning status of HEIS. Table 1 depicts the conversion of important parameters to binary digits.

Results and Discussion

Data collected through questionnaire was processed and analyzed to synthesize a clear concept about the influence of various kinds of factors on functioning status of HEIS on selected sites. The results indicated that threshold value for the status of experienced farmer was set at 10 years, according to which 77 % of the farmers in the study area were found to be experienced as demonstrated by the Figure 2a. Turning now to literacy status, 63 % of the farmers had education of 14 or more years as detailed in Figure 2b. Facts about the literacy status and farming experience in the study area seem to envisage a positive relation between education and success of HEIS. However, the reliable conclusions can only be drawn after detailed analysis. Moving on from literacy status, results further showed that sites where HEIS have been installed mainly fall in the category of farmers’ land holdings of more than 10 hectares (Figure 2c). It was found that 13 out of 30 sites were installed on farms located in the non-canal command areas while remaining sites were situated in the command area of canals which were located on head, and tail reaches of watercourses in almost equal proportion (Figure 2d). Data about the tenancy status and farming mode was also collected through the questionnaire. The analysis showed that 67 % of the famers were taking care of farming operations themselves and others 33 % were relying on their manager as illustrated in Figure 2e. Similarly, all the farms with installed HEIS -were owned by the farmers except one (Figure 2f).

Analysis of another major factor governing the selection of type of HEIS and agronomic practices i.e., soil type of farms where HEIS was installed revealed that 63 % sites had loamy soils while other sites had clayey and sandy soils (Figure 3a). Along with soil type, groundwater quality is also an important parameter especially when canal water is not available; groundwater of 22 sites (73 %) was identified as fit to use for irrigation while other sites had unfit or marginally fit groundwater in terms of salinity as groundwater was used on 40 % sites for irrigation (Figure 3b and 3c). As mentioned before, 80 % of the sites had drip irrigation installed while remaining sites were facilitated with sprinkler irrigation (Figure 3d). Further, data for types of crop grown in the study area under HEIS was collected, analyzed and categorized into four classes as summarized in the Figure 3e.

However, consideration about the age of installed HEIS was analyzed under this study. Determination of effect of oldness of HEIS on its functioning status is crucial, thus following data listed in Figure 3f was collected and analyzed. Having mentioned the type and age of HEIS, it is important to analyze the type of power source and pumping mechanism employed on various sites in the study area. Majority (60 %) of the sites met their power requirements through electricity while diesel engine was used as power source on 40 % of the sites in the study area (Figure 3g). Further, based on the available water sources and crop water requirements, single, double and direct pumping mechanism was used on 12, 10 and 8 sites respectively as shown in the Figure 3h.

Functioning status of HEIS installed throughout the Punjab is the most important indicator of its success regarding reliability that directly influences its adoption. Proper functioning of HEIS at a specific site not only shows a farmer’s satisfaction but also helps in adoption of this modern technology through conveying a positive message to the fellow farmers, who have not adopted HEIS yet. Similarly, failure or abandoning of a single HEIS site can result in negative perception about HEIS in a community which consequently stops or slows down the adoption of HEIS (Parasuraman and Colby, 2001; Godoe and Johansen, 2012). The location of functional and non-functional sites out of selected sites in various districts of the entire Punjab is depicted in Tables 2 and 3. Analyses of the collected data showed that majority of the sites (73 %) were functioning properly while a significant number of sites (27 %) were non-functional. Important to note though was the fact that the sites installed even as early as in 2012 were still working efficiently which approves the aptness of the current implementation model being used for the installation of HEIS.

Another fact worth mentioning is that most of the non-functioning sites were managed by farm managers employed by the farmers. Above mentioned fact shows the reluctance of farm managers to adopt new technologies and their lack of motivation to manage extra workload for the betterment of farm. Abandoning of the HEIS is also due to the reason that farmers consider their manager’s advice as the final word instead of evaluating the real grounds behind the ineffective results of water application through HEIS. Further assay of the sample data revealed that 100 % of the sites (4 in total) where HEIS was installed to irrigate cotton, ended up as non-functional. Failure of HEIS for irrigating cotton is important to point out as cotton has been successfully cultivated under drip irrigation in neighboring countries such as India and China (Aujla et al., 2005; Rajak et al., 2006; Choudhary et al., 2016; Narayanamoorthy, 2016; Du et al., 2008; Luo et al., 2016).

Table 1: Parameters used in the development of model.

Table 2: Salient Features Associated with Functional Sites.

Table 3: Salient Features Associated with Non-Functional Sites.

HEIS sites. Education levels of the farmers have also shown a very strong correlation for the site function status. Well educated farmers are well receptive for the modern irrigation methods and they may keep their systems functional and sustainable and even make it more profitable business through their knowledge. Deployment of an operator for farming operations, provision of backup supports and performing farming activities by the owners of the farm themselves have also shown marginally strong positive correlation with the site function status. Other factors such as pumping mechanism, soil types, energy source, farm location and groundwater quality have not shown significant correlations with the site function status. The correlation amongst all the parameters used for analysis is shown in Table 4. It was observed that the sites with positive net benefit were found to be functional (Figure 4). Above mentioned results are barely distinguishable from Palanisami et al. (2011). It is however important to consider the type of crop grown under HEIS, as the value of the crop directly influences the net benefit.

Table 5: Standings of selected parameters based on their influence.

Further, statistical analysis was performed to evaluate the influence of above mentioned parameters on the working status of HEIS Table 5. Through the preliminary analysis, the nine factors positively affected the site function status while remaining 3 parameters had negative influence on the sustenance of HEIS in terms of functioning status. The selected parameters were also ranked based on their influencing order such as net economic return, deployment of operator, literacy status, farming mode, pumping mechanism, backup support, system type, energy source, tenancy status, farm location, groundwater quality and farming experience because these parameters have significance coefficient values of 0.471, 0.342, 0.169, 0.163, 0.142, 0.110, 0.076, 0.071, 0.046, -0.037, -0.116, -0.212, respectively (Figure 5). Results showed that abandoning of HEIS is also partly due to lack of easily accessible maintenance which is in conformity with earlier studies (Kulecho and Weatherhead, 2005; Belder et al., 2007). The deployment of operator has become necessary by the farmers because consulting companies do not provide proper sales sale and service facilities. Reliance of proper functioning of HEIS sites on an operator was realized by the fact that sites where there was no assigned person for operation of HIES, ended up as unserviceable.

However, sites with deployed operator functioned for longer periods of time with an acceptable level of satisfaction. Reluctance of experienced farmers to leave their old and traditional culturing practices contributed towards either abandoning or non-functioning of HEIS. Facts regarding farmer’s experience and education proved a point that for adoption and sustenance of a new technology like HEIS, farmer’s awareness about that technology counts more than the farming experience. Significance of personality dimensions including educational status and experience of users in adoption of a new technology is in conformity with previous findings (Alcon et al., 2011; Godoe and Johansen, 2012). Interestingly, parameters like location of farm on the watercourse reach (at head) and good quality ground water had negative though minor impacts on the site function status which implies that farm located at the tail reaches of watercourses and having saline or brackish (unfit for irrigation) water have more potential for adoption and sustenance of HEIS. The poor-quality water of the area put more pressure on the fresh water resources of area resulting in shortage of fresh water resources (Shakoor et al., 2018). Thompson et al. (2009) reported that water shortages are demanding in the adoption of water-saving agricultural practices within the area. Similarly, it has been reported that the trickle irrigation system provides the best possible conditions of total soil water potential for low quality of irrigation water. The yield difference of 59% for bell pepper between trickle and sprinkler irrigation systems was reported when the salinity of irrigation water was 4.4 dSm-1 but no difference was reported when good water was used (Bernstein and Francois 1973; Asif et al., 2015). Similarly factors like HEIS type, power source, pumping mechanism etc., showed minor impact on the site function status. However, misconception about the negative impact of pumping water from a storage tank on the sustenance of HEIS was cleared and results showed a positive yet minor impact of indirect pumping on the site function status. Further, electricity was proved to be the better power source for sustenance of HEIS.

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