Research Article

Influence of Fertilizer Combinations on Agronomic Traits and Yield of Basmati variety in Direct Seeded Rice

Muhammad Usman Saleem*, Tahir Hussain Awan, Bilal Atta, Arshed Makhdoom Sabir and Muhammad Ijaz

Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, Punjab, Pakistan.

Received | July 02, 2024; Accepted | September 19, 2024; Published | November 15, 2024

*Correspondence | Muhammad Usman Saleem, Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, Punjab, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Saleem, M.U., T.H. Awan, B. Atta, A.M. Sabir and M. Ijaz. 2024. Influence of fertilizer combinations on agronomic traits and yield of Basmati variety in direct seeded rice. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 40(4): 1370-1382.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2024/40.4.1370.1382

Keywords | Direct seeded rice, Fertilizer combinations, Agronomic traits, Yield traits, Agricultural productivity, Sustainable crop production

Copyright: 2024 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food for more than half of the world’s population, providing essential calories and nutrients (Wu et al., 2018; Cañizares et al., 2024). Population growth has increased the demand for rice, driving the development of sustainable agricultural practices that can increase rice yields and minimize environmental impact (Runkle et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2022). Direct seeded rice (DSR) has emerged as a viable alternative to traditional transplanting methods, offering several advantages such as reduced labor, water use, and greenhouse gas emissions (Jat et al., 2022; Chaudhary et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2024).

Pakistan faces increasing water scarcity, with agriculture being the largest water user (Habib and Wahaj, 2021; Khan et al., 2021; Munir et al., 2021). DSR requires 30-50% less water than conventional transplanting, to make it a viable option in water-scarce regions (Sandhu et al., 2021; Chaudhary et al., 2023). Labor shortage, during peak transplanting season, has always a challenge (Kumar et al., 2022). DSR eliminates need for nursery preparation, transplanting, and related activities, thereby reducing labor requirement. This change is particularly beneficial in areas where labor costs are high (Kaur and Singh, 2017; Jat et al., 2022). DSR allows for more flexible planting date, enabling farmers to better aligned crop cycle with favorable weather conditions. This adaptability is critical in areas facing erratic rainfall patterns due to climate change (Hevner et al., 2019). DSR has been widely adopted in Punjab-Pakistan, a major rice-growing region (Balaji et al., 2020; Kamboj et al., 2022). Farmers in districts Gujranwala, Sialkot and Sheikhupura have reported improved yields and lower production costs with DSR. Research institution, such as Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, has played a key role in promoting DSR through field trials and farmer training program (Awan et al., 2018). In Sindh, especially in lower Indus basin region, DSR found favorable with progressive farmers. The introduction of short-duration and high-yielding DSR varieties helped to improve the profitability and sustainability of rice cultivation (Chaudhary et al., 2023). Technological advances such as precision land levelling, laser levelling, use of drum seeders and no-till seed drill have supported the adoption of DSR at local levels. These techniques ensure optimal seed placement and soil moisture management, which are critical to success of the DSR. However, efficiency of DSR depends largely on better agronomic practices, such as choosing appropriate fertilization combinations (Ramesh et al., 2017; Jat et al., 2022; Zhang and Hu, 2022) and application timings (Khan et al., 2021). Fertilizer management has shown a significant impact on growth, development and yield of rice (Noulas et al., 2023; Srivastav et al., 2024). It has also positively affected many agronomic parameters such as plant height, tiller number, leaf area index and hence ultimately increased grain yield (Islam et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020). This study focused on N + P combination from various available sources, which naturally different in price, availability, chemical composition, and status i.e., the pH, and their application to soils having different soil pH. These variations can significantly impact the nutrient releases from the fertilizers. Understanding these differences is crucial to optimize nutrients management practices for rice cultivation achieving better agronomic traits for yield. Proper nutrient management not only ensures its adequate availability but also improves efficiency in uptake and utilization by plants (Tahir et al., 2022; Becker et al., 2023).

Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are essential macronutrients for plant metabolism and growth (Koch et al., 2020; Sinha and Tandon, 2020; Shrivastav et al., 2020; Fang et al., 2023). The balance and timing of these nutrients available for plant growth are critical for optimum performance (Weih et al., 2018; Dhobhal, 2023; Paramesh et al., 2023). Choice of fertilizer combinations has a significant impact on performance of rice varieties in DSR cultivation (Bado et al., 2018; Jat et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2023). Premium rice varieties usually have favorable characteristics, such as good quality, resistance to pests and diseases, and adaptability to changing environmental condition (Zhou et al., 2020; Gong et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2024). However, full potential of rice can only be realized if appropriate agronomic practices, such as effective fertilizer management systems, are implemented (Hundal et al., 1979; Maqsood et al., 2001; Kumar et al., 2022; Hu et al., 2023; Li et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2024). Although the importance of fertilizer combinations in rice production is well established, more in-depth research is needed to investigate their impact on agronomic traits and yield of Basmati rice varieties in DSR cultivation.

This study will address this gap by studying the effects of various fertilizer combinations on Basmati rice varieties grown under DSR conditions. The study will focus on key agronomic factors. Understanding the relationship between fertilizer management and these characteristics allows us to design optimal fertilization techniques to improve rice yield and quality in DSR cultivation.

This research is particular importance for global food security and sustainable agriculture. As needed to produce more food with fewer resources continues to grow, it is essential to adopt solutions that increase crop yields while protecting environment. Results of this study provide valuable information to improve fertilizer combinations for Basmati rice DSR cultivation, thereby promoting sustainable rice cultivation practices. Aim of this study was to compare the effects of different fertilizer combination of N and P from available sources i.e., DAP + Urea, DAP + CAN, NP + Urea and NP + CAN on agronomic traits (number of tillers, plant height, panicle length and paddy yield) that results yield of Basmati rice in DSR conditions.

Materials and Methods

Experimental site and design

Field trials were carried out at Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, Punjab, Pakistan (31.7213° N, 74.2700° E), during 2019 and 2020 in rice growing seasons. The soil at experimental site is classed as calcareous with impervious subsoil pH of 7.5 (Rizwan et al., 2022). The climate is hot and semi-arid. The rice variety employed in this study was Basmati 515 (a high-quality Basmati variety with aromatic grains).

Experimental design

The trials were set up in a randomized complete block design (RCBD), with three replications. Each plot measured 40 m2. The treatments consisted of various fertilizer combinations administered at 100% levels to yield N 54, P 35 and K 25 kg ha-1 (Table 1).

Fertilizer application

The fertilizers were applied in accordance with treatment schedule. Nutrient supplies sources were DAP, CAN, NP, and Urea. Prior to seeding, fertilizers were broadcast and integrated into the soil. Nitrogen was applied in two stages 50% at sowing and the rest 50% at tillering stage of the crop growth.

Data collection

The following agronomic parameters were measured at various growth stages:

• Tillers m-²: The number of tillers per square meter was determined throughout tillering stage. To count tillers in a plot, 1m² area was randomly selected at three distinct sites within a plot, tiller density was counted.
• Plant height (cm): Plant height was measured at maturity. Ten tillers were chosen at random from a plot, and their heights were measured from base to the tip including panicle. Average height of the ten tillers was calculated.
• Panicle length (cm): Panicle length was measured during maturity on 10 tillers identified for plant height. Average panicle length of ten tillers was recorded.
• 1000-grain weight (g): A representative grain sample was collected from each plot after harvesting, threshing, and cleaning. From the sample, 1000 fully developed and uniform grains were manually counted and weighed using a digital balance with a precision of 0.01 grams. The process was repeated thrice per plot, and the average of these three readings was recorded as the 1000-grain weight.
• Grain yield (g/4m²): To control boundary effects, grain yield was assessed by harvesting 4m² area from each plot, harvested plants were manually threshed, grains were cleaned and weighed. The grain yield data from 4m² area was extended to estimate paddy yield per hectare.

 

Table 1: Summary of chemical properties of fertilizer treatments in direct seeded rice.

Treatments	Chemical analysis	Chemical formula	pH	Impact on experimental soil pH (Neutral to Slightly Alkaline)
DAP + Urea	N = 18%; P2O5 = 46% + N = 46%	(NH4)2HPO4 + CO (NH2)2	7.5–8.0 (Slightly Alkaline) + 5.0–6.5 (Slightly Acidic to Neutral)	This combination was slightly increased the soil pH towards the alkaline side, but the effect was moderate due to the neutralizing effect of Urea.
DAP + CAN	N = 18%; P2O5 = 46% + N = 26%	(NH4)2HPO4 + 5Ca(NO3)2 . NH4NO3 .10H2O	7.5–8.0 (Slightly Alkaline) + 6.0–6.5 (Slightly Acidic to Neutral)	This combination was also slightly increased the soil pH towards the alkaline side, but less so than DAP + Urea due to the buffering effect of CAN.
NP + Urea	N = 22%; P2O5 = 20% + N = 46%	H2NO6P + CO(NH2)2	5.5–7.0 (Slightly Acidic to Neutral) + 5.0–6.5 (Slightly Acidic to Neutral)	This combination was tended to decrease the soil pH slightly, made it more suitable for neutral to slightly acidic soil conditions.
NP + CAN	N = 22%; P2O5 = 20% + N = 26%	H2NO6P + 5Ca(NO3)2 . NH4NO3 .10H2O	5.5–7.0 (Slightly Acidic to Neutral) + 6.0–6.5 (Slightly Acidic to Neutral)	This combination was also tended to decrease the soil pH slightly, made it more suitable for neutral to slightly acidic soil conditions
Control	No fertilizer application

DAP = Diammonium Phosphate; CAN = Calcium Ammonium Nitrate; NP = Nitrophosphate.

 

Table 2: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of agronomic and yield responses of Basmati 515 to different fertilizer combinations in DSR cultivation.

Treatment	Fertilizer combination treatments
	Df	F-value		P-value
		Year 2019	Year 2020
Tillers (m2)	4a/8b/14c	17.31	17.77	0.0000**
Plant height (cm)	4a/8b/14c	180.55	243.11	0.0000**
Panicle length (cm)	4a/8b/14c	22.60	10.41	0.0000**
1000-grain weight (g)	4a/8b/14c	5.58	3.88	0.0000**
Yield in gram/4 m2	4a/8b/14c	16.10	9.08	0.0000**
Paddy yield per acre (Kg)	4a/8b/14c	16.10	9.08	0.0000**
Paddy yield per acre (maund)	4a/8b/14c	16.10	9.08	0.0000**
Paddy yield per acre (ton)	4a/8b/14c	16.10	9.08	0.0000**
Paddy yield per hectare (ton)	4a/8b/14c	16.10	9.08	0.0000**

a Treatment Degree of Freedom; b Error Degree of Freedom; c Total Degree of Freedom; ** Highly significant at probability level of 5%.

 

Value cost ratio

The Value Cost Ratio (VCR) of each treatment was calculated based on the following formula:

First, costs associated with each fertilizer combination were determined by obtaining current market prices for each fertilizer bag to calculate cost per hectare (41.15$ for DAP, 18.15$ for urea, 15.17$ for CAN, and 28.01$ for NP). The yield increase for each treatment was calculated (in kg ha-1). To determine the economic benefit of yield increase, yield increase was multiplied by the market price (0.40$.). Finally, VCR was calculated using the above formula.

Statistical analysis

Data gathered from the experiments were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) with statistical software, Statistix® (var. 8.1). Means were compared using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at 5% significance level to examine the effect of various fertilizer combinations on Basmati 515 agronomic traits for yield. The detailed statistical analysis aided in detecting significant changes between treatments and analyzing the impact of various fertilizer combinations on Basmati 515 performance in DSR cultivation.

Results and Discussion

Growth and yield characteristics of a Basmati rice variety subjected to different fertilizer treatments in DSR cultivation during the year 2019

The ANOVA revealed very significant differences between fertilizer treatments for all studied agronomic parameters and yield components in DSR cultivation during 2019. The F-values for tillers per square meter (F = 17.31), plant height (F = 180.55), panicle length (F = 22.60), 1000-grain weight (F = 5.58), and various yield expressions (F = 16.10) were all highly significant (P = 0.0000), indicating that fertilizer treatments had a strong impact on these parameters (Table 2).

The number of tillers per square meter differed considerably across treatments. NP + CAN had the maximum number of tillers (329.67/m²), followed by DAP + Urea (308.00/m²) and NP + Urea (267.33/m²). Control had the fewest tillers at 182.00 tillers/m². Fertilizer applications greatly influenced plant height. DAP + Urea produced the tallest plants at 150.40 cm, whereas the shortest plants were found in the Control treatment at 120.69 cm. Other treatments yielded plant heights ranging from 141.40 cm (DAP + CAN) to 149.20 cm (NP + Urea) (Table 3).

Fertilizer combinations have a substantial effect on panicle length. The longest panicles were seen in DAP + Urea at 29.59 cm, followed by NP + CAN at 28.93 cm. The control treatment had the shortest panicles, measuring 27.63 cm. In terms of 1000-grain weight, NP + CAN had the highest value at 23.11 g, followed by DAP + Urea at 22.25 g. The control treatment had the lowest 1000-grain weight, measuring 19.00 g. The best yield in grams per 4 square meters was achieved with NP + CAN at 1816.70 g, followed by DAP + Urea at 1683.30 g and NP + Urea at 1666.70. The control treatment had the lowest yield at 900.00 g (Table 3).

 

Table 3: Average (n = 3) of growth and yield characteristics of Basmati 515 subjected to different fertilizer treatments in DSR cultivation during 2019. Mean sharing similar letters do not significantly differ (P < 0.05).

Treatment	Tillers/m2	Plant height (cm)	Panicle length (cm)	1000-grain weight (g)	Yield in gram/4 m2	Paddy yield per acre (Kg)	Paddy yield per acre (maund)	Paddy yield per acre (ton)	Paddy yield per hectare (ton)
DAP + Urea	308.00 ab	150.40 a	29.59 a	22.25 a	1683.30 a	1703.10 a	42.58 a	1.70 a	4.21 a
DAP + CAN	236.00 c	141.40 b	28.23 c	21.07 ab	1350.00 b	1365.80 b	34.15 b	1.37 b	3.38 b
NP + Urea	267.33 bc	149.20 a	28.40 c	21.33 a	1666.70 a	1686.20 a	42.16 a	1.69 a	4.17 a
NP + CAN	329.67 a	148.50 a	28.93 b	23.11 a	1816.70 a	1838.00 a	45.95 a	1.84 a	4.54 a
Control	182.00 d	120.69 c	27.63 d	19.00 b	900.00 c	910.50 c	22.76 c	0.92 c	2.25 c
LSD	45.98	3.02	0.51	2.13	299.42	302.92	7.57	0.31	0.75

 

Table 4: Average (n = 3) of growth and yield characteristics of Basmati 515 subjected to different fertilizer treatments in DSR cultivation during 2020. Mean sharing similar letters do not significantly differ (P < 0.05).

Treatment	Tillers/m2	Plant height (cm)	Panicle length (cm)	1000 grain weight (g)	Yield in gram/4 m2	Paddy yield per acre (Kg)	Paddy yield per acre (maund)	Paddy yield per acre (ton)	Paddy yield per hectare (ton)
DAP + Urea	333.67 ab	153.53 a	29.59 a	22.40 a	1816.70 ab	1838.00 ab	45.95 ab	1.84 ab	4.54 ab
DAP + CAN	255.67 c	141.40 c	28.70 bc	21.32 ab	1433.30 b	1450.10 b	36.25 b	1.45 b	3.59 b
NP + Urea	291.00 bc	150.50 b	28.13 c	21.46 ab	1700.00 ab	1719.90 ab	43.00 ab	1.72 ab	4.25 ab
NP + CAN	358.33 a	148.50 b	28.93 b	23.31 a	1983.30 a	2006.60 a	50.16 a	2.01 a	4.96 a
Control	192.00 d	122.94 d	28.10 c	19.41 b	933.30 c	944.30 c	23.61 c	0.94 c	2.33 c
LSD	50.86	2.57	0.62	2.42	443.74	448.93	11.22	0.45	1.11

 

The paddy yield per acre differed considerably across treatments. NP + CAN had the maximum production at 1838.00 kg/acre (45.95 maunds/acre, 1.84 tons/acre, 4.54 tons/ha), whereas the control treatment had the lowest yield at 910.50 kg/acre (22.76 maunds/acre, 0.92 tons/acre, 2.25 tons/ha). Other treatments produced intermediate yields, with DAP + Urea yielding 1703.10 kg/acre (42.58 maunds/acre, 1.70 tons/acre, 4.21 tons/ha) and NP + Urea producing 1686.20 kg/acre (42.16 maunds/acre, 1.69 tons/acre, 4.17 tons/ha) (Table 3).

In summary, the study found that changing fertilizer combinations had a substantial impact on the agronomic features and output of the Basmati rice variety in direct seeded rice farming. NP + CAN consistently outperformed the other treatments on most measures, followed by DAP + Urea and NP + Urea, whereas the Control treatment continuously performed poorly. These data imply that the application of NP + CAN fertilizer could be a useful technique for boosting the development and production of Basmati rice varieties in DSR cultivation (Table 3).

Growth and yield characteristics of a Basmati variety subjected to different fertilizer treatments in DSR cultivation during the year 2020

The ANOVA revealed extremely significant differences between fertilizer treatments for all studied agronomic parameters and yield components in DSR production throughout 2020. The F-values for tillers per square meter (F = 17.77), plant height (F = 243.11), panicle length (F = 10.41), 1000-grain weight (F = 3.88), and various yield expressions (F = 9.08) were all highly significant (P = 0.0000), indicating that fertilizer treatments had a strong impact on these parameters (Table 2).

The number of tillers per square meter differed considerably across treatments. The most tillers were found in NP + CAN (358.33 tillers/m²), followed by DAP + Urea (333.67 tillers/m²) and NP + Urea (291.00 tillers/m²). Control had the fewest tillers at 192.00 tillers/m². Fertilizer applications greatly influenced plant height. DAP + Urea produced the tallest plants at 153.53 cm, whereas the shortest plants were found in the Control treatment at 122.94 cm. Other treatments yielded plant heights ranging from 141.40 cm (DAP + CAN) to 150.50 cm (NP + Urea) (Table 4).

Fertilizer combinations have a substantial effect on panicle length. The longest panicles were seen in DAP + Urea at 29.59 cm, followed by NP + CAN at 28.93 cm. The control treatment had the shortest panicles, measuring 28.10 cm. In terms of 1000-grain weight, NP + CAN had the highest value at 23.31 g, followed by DAP + Urea at 22.40 g. The control treatment had the lowest 1000-grain weight, measuring 19.41 g. The maximum yield in grams per 4 square meters was achieved with NP + CAN, at 1983.30 g, followed by DAP + Urea at 1816.70 g and NP + Urea at 1700.00 g. The Control treatment produced the least, 933.30 g (Table 4).

The paddy yield per acre differed considerably across treatments. NP + CAN produced the maximum production of 2006.60 kg/acre (50.16 maunds/acre, 2.01 tons/acre, 4.96 tons/ha), whereas the Control treatment produced the lowest yield of 944.30 kg/acre (23.61 maunds/acre, 0.94 tons/acre, 2.33 tons/ha). Other treatments produced intermediate yields, with DAP + Urea generating 1838.00 kg/acre (45.95 maunds/acre, 1.84 tons/acre, 4.54 tons/ha) and NP + Urea yielding 1719.90 kg/acre (43.00 maunds/acre, 1.72 tons/acre, 4.25 tons/ha) (Table 4).

In summary, the study found that changing fertilizer combinations had a substantial impact on the agronomic features and output of the Basmati rice variety in DSR farming. NP + CAN consistently outperformed the other treatments on most measures, followed by DAP + Urea and NP + Urea, whereas the Control treatment continuously performed poorly. The data indicate that using NP + CAN fertilizer in DSR cultivation could be an effective technique for increasing the development and yield of Basmati rice varieties (Table 4).

Growth and yield characteristics of a Basmati variety subjected to different fertilizer treatments in combined data from DSR cultivation during 2019 and 2020

The number of tillers per square meter varied significantly across the treatments. The NP + CAN treatment resulted in the highest tiller density, with 344.00 tillers/m², followed by DAP + Urea with 320.83 tillers/m². The lowest number of tillers was observed in the control, which recorded 187.00 tillers/m². The NP + Urea and DAP + CAN treatments resulted in 279.17 and 245.86 tillers/m², respectively (Table 5).

Plant height also varied across treatments, with the tallest plants observed under the NP + CAN treatment, reaching 148.50 cm. The DAP + Urea treatment resulted in plants with a height of 15! 0.97 cm, while the shortest plants were found in the control group, which had an average height of 121.81 cm. The DAP + CAN and NP + Urea treatments produced plants with heights of 141.40 cm and 149.85 cm, respectively (Table 5).

The length of panicles was also influenced by the different treatments. The longest panicles were recorded under the NP + CAN treatment, with an average length of 28.93 cm, while the shortest panicles were found in the control group, with an average length of 27.87 cm. The DAP + Urea treatment produced panicles of 29.59 cm in length, followed by NP + Urea and DAP + CAN treatments, which resulted in panicle lengths of 28.27 cm and 28.47 cm, respectively (Table 5).

Similarly, the 1000-grain weight was also affected by the treatments. The highest grain weight was recorded in the NP + CAN treatment at 23.21 g, followed by DAP + Urea at 22.33 g. The NP + Urea and DAP + CAN treatments produced grain weights of 21.40 g and 21.19 g, respectively. The lowest grain weight was observed in the control group, with an average of 19.20 g (Table 5).

The grain yield, measured in grams per 4 square meters, was highest under the NP + CAN treatment, which produced 1900.00 g/4 m². The DAP + Urea treatment also showed a significant yield, with 1750.00 g/4 m². The control treatment yielded the lowest at 916.70 g/4 m². The DAP + CAN and NP + Urea treatments resulted in yields of 1391.70 g/4 m² and 1683.30 g/4 m², respectively (Table 5).

When considering paddy yield per acre in kilograms, the NP + CAN treatment again produced the highest yield with 1922.30 kg/acre. The DAP + Urea treatment followed with 1770.50 kg/acre. The lowest yield was observed in the control group, which produced 927.40 kg/acre. The DAP + CAN and NP + Urea treatments resulted in yields of 1408.00 kg/acre and 1703.10 kg/acre, respectively (Table 5).

When converting the yield to maund per acre, the NP + CAN treatment had the highest yield of 48.06 maund/acre. The DAP + Urea treatment produced 44.26 maund/acre, while the control group had the lowest yield of 23.19 maund/acre. The DAP + CAN and NP + Urea treatments yielded 35.20 maund/acre and 42.58 maund/acre, respectively (Table 5).

 

Table 5: Combined average (n = 3) of growth and yield characteristics of Basmati 515 subjected to different fertilizer treatments in DSR cultivation over two years (2019 and 2020). Mean sharing similar letters do not significantly differ (P < 0.05).

Treatment	Tillers/m2	Plant height (cm)	Panicle length (cm)	1000 grain weight (g)	Yield in gram/4 m2	Paddy yield per acre (Kg)	Paddy yield per acre (maund)	Paddy yield per acre (ton)	Paddy yield per hectare (ton)
DAP + Urea	320.83ab	151.97 a	29.59 a	22.33 a	1750.00 a	1770.50 a	44.26 a	2.64 a	4.37 a
DAP + CAN	245.86 c	141.40 c	28.47 bc	21.19 ab	1391.70 b	1408.00 b	35.20 b	2.04 b	3.48 b
NP + Urea	279.17 bc	149.85 ab	28.27 cd	21.40 ab	1683.30 a	1703.10 a	42.58 a	2.52 a	4.21 a
NP + CAN	344.00 a	148.50 b	28.93 b	23.21 a	1900.00 a	1922.30 a	48.06 a	2.79 a	4.75 a
Control	187.00 d	121.81 d	27.87 d	19.20 b	916.70 c	927.40 c	23.19 c	1.38 c	2.30 c
LSD	48.21	2.70	0.51	2.25	254.47	257.45	6.44	0.40	0.64

 

In terms of paddy yield per acre (ton), the NP + CAN treatment again recorded the highest yield at 2.79 tons per acre, followed by the DAP + Urea treatment with 2.64 tons per acre. The NP + Urea treatment yielded 2.52 tons per acre, while the DAP + CAN treatment produced 2.04 tons per acre. The control group had the lowest yield, producing 1.38 tons per acre (Table 5).

The yield per hectare in tons followed a similar pattern, with the NP + CAN treatment producing the highest yield of 4.75 tons/ha. The DAP + Urea treatment resulted in 4.37 tons/ha, while the control group had the lowest yield of 2.30 tons/ha. The DAP + CAN and NP + Urea treatments resulted in yields of 3.48 tons/ha and 4.21 tons/ha, respectively (Table 5).

Overall, the NP + CAN treatment consistently outperformed the other treatments across all parameters, while the control group had the lowest values, indicating the significant impact of fertilizer application on the growth and yield of Basmati 515 under DSR cultivation.

Value cost ratio (VCR) of different fertilizer treatments in DSR cultivation

In 2019, the VCR for the treatment of DAP + Urea was 14.72, while in 2020, it decreased to 13.06. For the treatment of DAP + CAN, the VCR was 8.78 in 2019 and slightly decreased to 7.90 in 2020. The treatment of NP + Urea maintained a consistent VCR of 16.41 in both years. The NP + CAN treatment had the highest VCR, with 24.03 in 2019, which slightly decreased to 20.98 in 2020. Overall, the NP + CAN treatment exhibited the highest VCR in both years, indicating it was the most cost-effective treatment among the ones tested. The consistency of the NP + Urea treatment suggests it provided stable economic returns. The slight decrease in VCR for the other treatments between 2019 and 2020 suggests a reduction in their cost-effectiveness over the two-year period (Table 6).

 

Table 6: Value Cost Ratio (VCR) of different fertilizer treatments in DSR cultivation. Mean sharing similar letters do not significantly differ (P < 0.05).

Treatment	Year-2019	Year-2020
DAP + Urea	14.72 b	13.06 bc
DAP + CAN	8.78 b	7.90 c
NP + Urea	16.41 ab	16.41 ab
NP + CAN	24.03 a	20.98 a

 

Over a two-year period, the impact of several fertilizer combinations on the growth and output of a Basmati rice variety in DSR cultivation was assessed, and all measured agronomic traits and yield components showed substantial differences. NP + CAN treatment was consistently more effective than the other treatments, followed by DAP + Urea and NP + Urea, while the Control group was the least effective.

The comparison between 2019 and 2020 showed that NP + CAN treatment had a consistent positive impact on growth and yield indicators in DSR cultivation. Over the two years of the study, NP + CAN consistently outperformed the other treatments on key agronomic indicators such as tillers per square meter, plant height, panicle length and total yield. Specifically, NP + CAN increased tiller density and plant height, indicating vigorous vegetative development. This treatment improves panicle length, thereby increasing yield potential. In contrast, the Control treatment consistently obtained lower scores on these parameters in both years. The Control plot had fewer tillers per square meter, shorter plants and panicles, and lower yields than all fertilized plots. This consistent pattern demonstrates the significant advantages of implementing a balanced nutrient scheme such as NP + CAN in DSR cultivation, where nutrient availability directly affects crop growth and yield.

The observed increase in growth and yield after NP + CAN treatment was due to the synergistic effects of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and CAN. N is necessary for chlorophyll synthesis and protein production, as well as for photosynthesis and general plant health, promoting vigorous vegetative development, such as tillering and leaf expansion (Shrivastav et al., 2020; Ye et al., 2022). P increases energy transfer processes within the plant, thereby improving nutrient uptake efficiency, root development, and early vigor, all of which are necessary for proper plant growth (Hasan et al., 2016; Malhotra et al., 2018; Bechtaoui et al., 2021; Han et al., 2022).

At the same time, CAN provides a healthy balance of nitrogen and calcium, and calcium helps form and stabilize cell walls. CAN’s delayed nitrogen release ensures nutrient availability throughout the growing cycle, improving nutrient uptake efficiency and minimizing losses through leaching or volatilization (Landi and Esposito, 2017; Thor, 2019; Yang et al., 2024). This synergistic combination in NP + CAN treatment improves nutrient utilization, promotes balanced growth and increases yield potential in DSR cultivation (Chen et al., 2024). These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of intensive nutrient management strategies in improving rice productivity and sustainability, and are consistent with previous studies emphasizing the critical roles of nitrogen and phosphorus in crop development (Shrivastav et al., 2020; Guan et al., 2024; Seghouani et al., 2024).

The NP + CAN treatment exhibited remarkable efficacy in enhancing the agronomic traits and yield of Basmati 515 in direct-seeded rice cultivation, which can be attributed to its chemical properties and compatibility with the soil pH at the experimental site. The pH of the experimental soil was 7.5, indicating a neutral to slightly alkaline environment (Rizwan et al., 2022). This pH level aligns well with the slightly acidic to neutral pH range of CAN (6.0–6.5) and NP (5.5–7.0) (Argo and Fisher, 2008; Guan, 2016), enabling optimal nutrient availability and uptake by the rice plants (Hignett, 1985; Nwokolo, 2024). The slightly acidic nature of CAN and NP helps in buffering the soil pH towards neutrality, which is particularly beneficial in neutral to slightly alkaline soils. This buffering capacity ensures that essential nutrients remain available to the plants, promoting better growth and development (McCauley et al., 2009; Coetzee et al., 2017; Powlson and Dawson, 2022). The superior performance of NP + CAN in our study, as evidenced by higher tiller counts, plant height, panicle length, and overall yield, can be attributed to this synergistic effect on soil pH and nutrient availability. Furthermore, the adaptability of NP + CAN across various soil types enhances its applicability beyond the experimental site. In acidic soils, the slightly alkaline nature of NP can help mitigate soil acidity (Mlalazi, 2016), while CAN’s calcium content can improve soil structure and nutrient uptake (Morales et al., 2023). This versatility suggests that NP + CAN can be an effective fertilizer combination in diverse pH conditions, making it a valuable strategy for enhancing rice production in different regions. The consistent high yield and cost-effectiveness of NP + CAN across both years of the study underscore its potential as a preferred fertilizer treatment for direct-seeded rice cultivation.

Our findings are consistent with previous studies, highlighting the importance of N and P in rice production, especially in direct seeding cultivation where nutrient supply directly affects crop growth and development (Kaur et al., 2024). Studies have shown that balanced fertilization can significantly improve yield and growth characteristics (Du et al., 2021; Dhaliwal et al., 2023; Noulas et al., 2023; Yokamo et al., 2023), and our findings support this as rice yield was improved under the NP + CAN combination. This is consistent with previous research demonstrating the relevance of nitrogen and phosphorus in rice agriculture (Fageria et al., 2010; Baksh et al., 2017; Jemila et al., 2017).

This study fills an important gap in the literature by optimizing fertilizer combinations for DSR cultivation. Previous studies have generally focused on transplanted rice (Angayarkanni and Ravichandran, 2001; Fan et al., 2009) or have not examined the specific nutrient combination used in this study. Our study provides new insights into the effectiveness of NP + CAN combinations, which can help guide future fertilization methods in DSR cultivation, leading to more sustainable and efficient rice production. This addresses a pressing research need beyond traditional transplant cultivation and provides a practical solution for DSR programs.

The broader implications of these findings suggest that this could improve the food security and economics of rice farmers. The improvements in growth and yield observed after NP + CAN treatment may lead to increased rice yield, thereby contributing to food security. Additionally, this fertilization strategy may have environmental benefits because it reduces the need for excessive fertilization, thereby reducing nutrient losses and their associated biological impacts.

Future studies should explore the long-term effects of NP + CAN fertilization on soil health and nutrient cycling in DSR cultivation. More research should be conducted on the performance of this fertilization combination in other rice varieties and agro-ecological zones to confirm its broader applicability. Furthermore, studies focusing on the economic feasibility of implementing this fertilization strategy on a large scale, taking into account input costs and potential yield improvements, would provide valuable information on practical implementation.

Conclusions and Recommendations

This study was conducted during the 2019 and 2020 rice growing seasons and revealed the impact of various fertilization combinations on the agronomic traits and yield of Basmati 515 in a DSR cultivation. NP + CAN generally performed better than the other treatments, with the highest number of tillers per square meter, taller plants, longer panicles, and higher rice yields. DAP + Urea and NP + Urea had better results than the Control treatments, but in general they were surpassed by NP + CAN. The unfertilized Control treatment performed consistently poorly, highlighting the need for fertilization. Although the trends remained stable during both years, the actual values fluctuated slightly due to annual meteorological and environmental changes during the field studies. Based on the findings, farmers and farmers should adopt NP + CAN fertilization scheme for Basmati rice varieties in DSR cultivation. If NP + CAN is not available, DAP + Urea and NP + Urea are suitable alternatives. More research is needed to better understand the link between fertilization combinations and environmental conditions. Field demonstrations and training programs should be done to assist farmers in understanding and properly applying optimum fertilizer combinations, which will increase productivity and quality of Basmati rice varieties in DSR cultivation while also improving farmers’ economic returns.

Novelty Statement

The study presents a pioneering analysis into the best fertilization procedures for Basmati 515, a premium Basmati aromatic rice variety grown under DSR conditions. This study distinguishes out for testing a wide range of fertilizer combinations, including DAP, CAN, NP, and Urea, throughout two growth seasons. The data show considerable improvements in important agronomic traits and yield components with specific fertilizer combinations, particularly NP + CAN, which performed better in terms of tiller density, plant height, panicle length, and total yield. By addressing the important need for efficient fertilization procedures in DSR cultivation, this study provides useful insights for increasing rice productivity and sustainability, adding to the larger goal of optimizing rice farming practices in similar agro-ecological settings.

Author’s Contribution

Muhammad Usman Saleem and Tahir Hussain Awan: Conceptualized the study and collected the data.

Muhammad Usman Saleem, Bilal Atta and Arshed Makhdoom Sabir: Performed the statistical analysis, wrote the methodology section.

Muhammad Usman Saleem, Tahir Hussain Awan, Bilal Atta and Muhammad Ijaz: Wrote the Introduction section of the manuscript.

Muhammad Usman Saleem, Tahir Hussain Awan, Bilal Atta and Arshed Makhdoom Sabir: Collaborated on the results and discussion section.

Bilal Atta and Muhammad Ijaz: Formatted the manuscript according to the journal’s requirements.

Final review and consent: All authors reviewed, revised, and approved the final manuscript for submission.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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