Prevalence, Intensity and Risk Factors of Tick Infestation of Cattle in Northwest Region Cameroon

Marie Claire Komtangi, Paul Junior Detsi, Betrand Kiafon Nsah and Julius Awah-Ndukum*

College of Technology, University of Bamenda, Bambili, Cameroon.

Editor | Muhammad Abubakar, National Veterinary Laboratories, Park Road, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Received | January 14, 2025; Accepted | February 18, 2025; Published | February 26, 2025

*Correspondence | Julius Awah-Ndukum, College of Technology, University of Bamenda, Bambili, Cameroon; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Komtangi, M.C., P.J. Detsi, B.K. Nsah and J. Awah-Ndukum. 2025. Prevalence, intensity and risk factors of tick infestation of cattle in northwest region Cameroon. Veterinary Sciences: Research and Reviews, 11(1): 39-53.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.vsrr/2025/11.1.39.53

Keywords | Cattle, Tick infestation, Prevalence, Tick abundance, Risk factors, Northwest Cameroon

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Livestock play a very important role in global food security providing about 12.9% calories and 27.9% protein through consumption of meat, milk, eggs and offal (FAO, 2011), and contributing about 9% of the total agricultural or about 2.1% of the Gross Domestic Product in Cameroon (MINEPIA, 2012). It is vital to the reduction of household poverty, economy and livelihood of agro-pastoral communities in most African countries (Biguezoton, 2017; Koussou, 2008; Nyamushamba et al., 2017). Over 35% of the rural populations in Cameroon depend exclusively on livestock (MINEPIA, 2012, 2020). However, indigenous cattle in most African countries including Cameroon are predominantly bred naturally under traditional management systems with little or no breeding programs (Ojong et al., 2021) and significant economic losses due to mortality associated to diseases have been reported (Demessie and Derso, 2015; FAO, 2011; Koussou, 2008; Minjauw and McLeod, 2003; Morka et al., 2014). The potential of the livestock sector is under-exploited and its development is constrained by many environmental, feeding, healthcare deliveries, social and technical problems (Abbas et al., 2014; Bouchard et al., 2019; FAO, 2011; Koussou, 2013; Wall and Shearer, 2001). Adaptation of modern husbandry systems in many tropical regions is limited principally by animal diseases including tick infestation and tick-borne diseases which cause major health constraints and economic losses in cattle production (Abbas et al., 2014; Biguezoton, 2017; Morka et al., 2014; Pacaud and Cournut, 2007; Sassa et al., 2016).

There are increasing medical and veterinary attention on ectoparasites due to their role as primary vectors of numerous pathogens of animal diseases and also cause serious problems to human health (Abbas et al., 2014; Gérard et al., 2017; INRA, 2017; Parola and Raoult, 2001). Ticks induce huge production and economic losses in livestock industry by creating serious impact on animal health and productivity (Duguma et al., 2012; Jongejan and Uilenberg, 2004; Minjauw and McLeod, 2003; Perry et al., 2002). The associated direct and indirect impact of the prevalence of tick species ticks and tick-borne diseases on the health status, decreased weight gain and milk production, hypersensitivity and other production indices of infested livestock have been widely reported (Kaur et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2024; Kumar et al., 2022; Lobetti, 2004; Ragulraj et al., 2023; Raut et al., 2008). Direct losses on livestock production due to damage to the skin by biting, especially in highly infested cattle (Rodriguez-Vivas et al., 2018); blood loss associated with high parasitic loads, and anaemia (Rodriguez-Vivas et al., 2018); severe immunological reactions by the inoculation of toxins (Rodriguez-Vivas et al., 2018); stress that affects the behaviour and welfare of the animal and depression of the immune function (Abbas et al., 2014), and loss of energy due to constant movement in response to infestation have been reported. The indirect losses include the effects of tick borne-diseases such as hemoparasites (Abbas et al., 2014; Rodriguez-Vivas et al., 2018), cost of treatment for clinical cases; expenses incurred in the control of ticks; unearned income and inefficiencies in the production system such as acaricide residues in meat or milk and trade restrictions of animals between countries among others (Biguezoton, 2017; Gérard et al., 2017; INRA, 2017; Lontsi-Demano et al., 2020; Sassa et al., 2016).

Though some knowledge of cattle breeders on tick and tick-borne diseases (Hayatou et al., 2023a) and different tick species of cattle have been reported in parts of Cameroon (Bayemi, 1991; Hayatou et al., 2023a; Lontsi-Demano et al., 2020; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., 2022, 2023, 2025; Sado-Yousseu et al., 2022; Sassa et al., 2016; Silatsa et al., 2019) information on the awareness of hazards caused by ticks on husbandry systems, tick distribution and abundance lacking in the country. In addition, priority on infectious and contagious diseases of animals has been heightened in the country with little or no attention on tick and tick-borne diseases. In view of the medical and veterinary importance of ticks in the livestock sector, this study was carried out to determine the prevalence, intensity and risk factors of tick infestation of cattle in the Northwest region of Cameroon.

Materials and Methods

Study area and animal

The study was carried out from June to August 2022on cattle originating from the administrative divisions of the Northwest region of Cameroon (5o45” – 9o9” N and 9o13” – 11o13” E) destined for slaughter in the Bamenda municipal abattoir (Figure 1). The Northwest region of Cameroon is located within an altitude of 500–3000 m above sea level, and characterized by fertile volcanic soils. The choice of

 

the study areas and use of cattle destined for slaughter was due to the following: (1) The Northwest region is ranked as a major livestock production area including cattle in the country (MINEPIA, 2020) and lots of grazing pasture and assembling sites for ranch farming, communal grazing and other pastoral activities. (2) The study region area has a subtropical type climate with average temperatures ranging from 21.6 to 27ºC, annual rainfall of over 2259 mm, high humidity (75% - 80%) and savannah vegetation with forest galleries. The region has a bimodal rainfall type with two seasons: the rainy season from mid-March to mid-November and dry season from mid-November to mid-March (Gwanfogbe et al., 1983; Neba, 1999; Molua, 2006). The warm humid subtropical climate and vegetation type of the study region provides suitable conditions for ticks to grow and develop (Bouchard et al., 2019; Wall and Shearer, 2001). There is dearth of information on the status of tick infestation and abundance in cattle in the Northwest region of Cameroon. (3) Tick has been detected in cattle in parts of the country (Hayatou et al., 2023a; Silatsa et al., 2019); and there are many ethnic agropastoral communities with strong cultures of livestock rearing for livelihood in the region. (4) Bamenda, the main city of Northwest region Cameroon, has the biggest and most functional livestock market and municipal abattoir in the entire region which receives animals including cattle for trade and slaughter, respectively, from all livestock producing areas of the region.

Sampling and morphological identification of different tick species

Determination of the prevalence and intensity of tick infestation in cattle was done at the Bamenda municipal abattoir. Selection of individual cattle at the abattoir during the study period was done using previously described systematic random sampling technique (Modupe et al., 2017). An individual prevalence rate of 59.4% (Silatsa et al., 2019) was used to estimate the sample size as described by Thrusfield (2007). The animal sampling and tick harvesting procedure was done as previously described (Zachée et al., 2020). Briefly, based on a calculated sampling fraction of five (every fifth animal was sampled) for daily use, the first animal was selected by picking one animal by random generation method of the first five animals on the slaughter chain. Thereafter, every fifth animal (adding 5 to previous picked number) was chosen.

Prior to slaughter and following rigorous visual examination of tick on the preferred sites of the skin of the animals (head, neck, back, thoraco-abdominal, inguinal, perineal, leg and tail regions), all the ticks encountered on the animal’s body was harvested, by gently tapping at the rostrum and traction using a pair of forceps. The harvested ticks were stored in individual 5ml labeled (identifying the sampled animal, anatomical region, date of harvest) tubes containing 70% ethanol and 30% glycerol for analysis within 24–48 hours for analysis in the laboratory of the Northwest Regional Delegation for Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries. Systemic phenotypic identification of the tick species based on morphological features was done using binocular microscope (Optika®) and guided by references tick images as previously described (Meddour and Meddour, 2006; Walker et al., 2003). Information related to the breed, sex, age and body condition score of the sampled animals were noted. Estimation of ages was done by dental inspection and examination of horn rings for animals without teeth (especially old/adult females) while the breed of the animals was obtained as previously described (Blench, 1999; Fassi, 2006; MINEPIA, 2002; Turton, 1999). The body condition score was done by assessing the general appearance and palpation of the lumbar region of the animal on a scale of 1 to 5 and further classed into 3 categories : 1–2 (thin), 3 (moderate) and 4–5 (fat) as previously described (Natumanya et al., 2008).

Data analysis

All obtained data were initially entered into Excel 2010 spread sheet and summarized to generate descriptive statistics like mean and proportion. The chi-square test was used to assess the level of association within factors considered in the study on prevalence rates, odds-ratios and regression analysis were used to assess the strength of association of these potential factors with tick infestation in cattle. The student t-test was used to compare the mean intensity of tick infestations on the study animals (Thrusfield, 2007). The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software package version 20 (SPSS 20; SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA) was used for data analysis. The study considered a 95% level of confidence and the statistical significance was set at P<0.05.

Ethical consideration

Risk assessments of the project were performed by the researchers to avoid hazards to all persons and animals involved in the study. Permission for the study and ethical approval were obtained from the required authorities in Bamenda–Cameroon before carrying out the study. The purpose of the study was explained (with the assistance of resident veterinarians, local community leaders and or trusted intermediaries) to the targeted participants (owners, traders, and butchers) of the Bamenda municipal abattoir. An animal was included in the study after an informed verbal consent was given by the owner or trader-butcher. Apart from procedural restraining manipulations for safety purposes, the animals used in the present study were not subjected to suffering.

Results

Prevalence of tick infestation in cattle slaughtered in the Bamenda Municipality abattoir

The cattle slaughtered in the Bamenda Municipal abattoir were mainly of the Zebu type (Goudali, Red Mbororo, White Fulani and Hybrid). Overall, visual examination of 341 cattle revealed that 248 (72.73%, 95% CI: 67.62–77.32) animals were infested with ticks (Table 1).

 

Table 1: Prevalence of tick infestation of cattle slaughtered in Bamenda municipality by breed, sex, age, Body condition score of the animal.

Factors	Variable	Number (positive)	Infestation rate; % (95% CI)	P-value (χ2)
Breed	Goudali (n=7)	7 (4)	57.14 (20.24 – 88.19)	0.743 (1.242)
	Hybrid (n=13)	13 (9)	69.23 (38.88 – 89.64)
	Red Mbororo (n=164)	164 (118)	71.95 (64.31 – 78.54)
	White Fulani (n=157)	157 (117)	74.52 (66.84 – 80.98)
Sex	Female (n=71)	71 (50)	70.42 (58.24 – 80.36)	0.624 (0.240)
	Male (n=270)	270 (198)	73.33 (67.75 – 78.42)
Age (X)	X ≤ 3 years (n=44)	44 (32)	72.73 (56.96 – 84.55)	0.826 (0.383)
	3 < X ≤ 6 years (n=195)	195 (141)	72.31 (65.38 – 78.35)
	> 6 years (n=102)	102 (75)	73.53 (63.71 – 81.55)
Body condition score	Thin (1 – 2) (n=24)	24 (21)	87.50 (66.54 – 96.71)	0.240 (2.852)
	Moderate (3) (n=160)	160 (115)	71.88 (64.14 – 78.55)
	Fat (4 – 5) (n=157)	157 (112)	71.34 (63.49 – 78.12)
Division of origin	Boyo (n=24)	24 (16)	66.67 (44.70 – 83.58)	0.781 (3.222)
	Bui (n=94)	94 (70)	74.47 (64.25 – 82.66)
	Donga-mantung (n=77)	77 (56)	72.73 (61.20 – 81.97)
	Menchum (n=77)	77 (57)	74.03 (62.57 – 83.06)
	Mezam (n=21)	21 (17)	80.95 (57.42 – 93.71)
	Momo (n=44)	44 (29)	65.91 (50.00 – 79.07)
	Ngoketungia (n=4)	4 (3)	75.00 (21.94 – 98.68)
Total		341 (248)	72.73 (67.62 – 77.32)

 

* values are significant at p <0.05

 

Though breed, sex, age, body condition score and location of origin of the animals had no significant effects (P> 0.05) on the prevalence of tick infestation of cattle in the present study (Table 1), there were significant differences (p<0.05) between prevalence according to type and sex of tick.

Among the tick species (four tick types) Amblyomma variegatum (58.06%), Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (48.97%), Haemaphysalis spp. (3.52%), Hyalomma spp. (0.59%) and other Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) spp. (0.88%) were identified (Figure 2). Overall, infestation by female ticks was significantly higher [OR = 1.67 (1.22–2.27); χ2 = 11.32; P=0.0008] compared to infestations by male ticks, and particularly by female Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus [OR = 8.34 (5.47–12.71); χ2 = 115.83; P=0.00001] and female Haemaphysalis spp [OR= 3.41 (0.93–12.52); χ2 = 3.86; P=0.049] compared to the others (Figure 2).

 

 

Among the tick infested cattle, infestations by Amblyomma variegatum (79.84%) was highest followed by Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (67.34%), Haemaphysalis spp. (4.81%), Hyalomma spp. (1.21%) and other Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) spp. (0.81%) (Table 2). Also, the proportions of Red Mbororo and White Fulani breeds, male cattle, 3 to 6 years and > 6 years old cattle, moderate and fat cattle were significantly higher (P<0.05) compared to the Goudali breed and Hybrid, female cattle, <3 years old cattle, and thin cattle, respectively. In addition, animals originating from Bui, Donga-Mantung and Menchum Divisions showed significantly higher (p<0.05) proportions among the tick infested cattle compared to those from other divisions (Table 2).

Co-infestations of 2 and 3 tick types and significant differences (P<0.05) in infestation rates of cattle between tick types and within the detected tick combination categories were observed in the present study (Table 3). For single infestations, more Amblyomma variegatum (29.84%) (OR = 1.92, 95% CI [1.26–2.93]; P= 0.0002) compared to Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (18.15%) infested cattle. For double/dual infestations, the associations of Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus and Amblyomma variegatum (45.16%; 95%CI: 38.89 – 51.58) was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the other association types (Table 3).

Microscopic examination of 1,961 (3.70±4.97 per infested animal) ticks, representing 600 male (2.94±2.56 per infested animal) and 1361 female (4.17±5.96 per infested animal) ticks, collected from the sampled cattle revealed high intensity of Amblyomma variegatum (50.89%) followed by Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (47.63%), Haemaphysalis spp. (0.97%), Rhipecephalus spp (0.41%) and Hyalomma spp. (0.10%) (Table 4). The relative abundance was significantly (P<0.05) higher for female ticks, Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus species compared to male ticks and other tick species, respectively.

Among the tick infested cattle in the study, the relative abundance of ticks was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the Red Mbororo and White Fulani breeds, male cattle, 3 to 6 years and > 6 years old cattle, moderate and fat cattle, compared to the Goudali breed and Hybrid, female cattle, <3 years old cattle, and thin cattle, respectively. Animals originating from Bui, Donga-Mantung and Menchum Divisions showed significantly higher (p<0.05) relative abundance of ticks compared to those from other divisions (Table 4). In addition, the male to female sex ratio for tick

 

Table 2: Distribution of tick infested cattle (N=248) according to species of tick and breed, sex, age, Body condition score, and origin of infested cattle in Bamenda.

Factor	Variable	Amblyomma variegatum		Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus		Haema-physalis spp		Hyalomma spp		Other rhipece-phalus (Boophilus) spp		Total
		N	(%)	N	(%)	N	(%)	N	(%)	N	(%)	N	(%)
Breed	Guadali	3	75.00	2	50.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	4	1.61a
	Hybrid	7	77.78	4	44.44	0	0.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	9	3.63b
	Red mbororo	92	77.97	80	67.80	8	6.78	1	0.85	2	1.69	118	47.58c
	White Fulani	96	82.05	81	69.23	4	3.42	1	0.85	1	0.85	117	47.18c
Sex	Female	40	80.00	34	68.00	2	4.00	2	4.00	2	4.00	50	20.16a
	Male	158	79.80	133	67.17	10	5.05	0	0.00	1	0.51	198	79.84b
Age (X)	X ≤ 3 years	29	90.63	17	53.13	3	9.38	0	0.00	1	3.13	32	12.90a
	3 < X ≤ 6 years	109	77.30	96	68.09	6	4.26	0	0.00	1	0.71	141	56.85b
	> 6 years	60	80.00	54	72.00	3	4.00	2	2.67	1	1.33	75	30.24c
Body condition score	Thin (1 – 2)	17	80.95	14	66.67	1	4.76	0	0.00	0	0.00	21	8.47a
	Moderate (3)	95	82.61	77	66.96	6	5.22	0	0.00	0	0.00	115	46.37b
	Fat (4 – 5)	86	76.79	76	67.86	5	4.46	2	1.79	3	2.68	112	45.16b
Division of origin	Boyo	12	75.00	12	75.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	0	0.00	16	6.45a
	Bui	59	84.29	41	58.57	7	10.00	0	0.00	1	1.43	70	28.23b
	Donga-mantung	46	82.14	37	66.07	3	5.36	0	0.00	0	0.00	56	22.58c
	Menchum	45	78.95	43	75.44	0	0.00	0	0.00	1	1.75	57	22.98bc
	Mezam	15	88.24	10	58.82	1	5.88	0	0.00	0	0.00	17	6.85a
	Momo	19	65.52	22	75.86	1	3.45	0	0.00	1	3.45	29	11.69d
	Ngoke-tungia	2	66.67	2	66.67	0	0.00	2	66.67	0	0.00	3	1.21e
Total		198	79.84A	167	67.34B	12	4.84C	2	0.81D	3	1.21D	248	100.00

 

N: number of ticks infested cattle; (%): proportion infested cattle. a, b, c, d, e : same letter in a column (Total) for a category (row = Factor) are not significantly different (p>0.05). A, B, C, D: same letter in a for a category (row = Factor) are not significantly different (p>0.05).

 

Table 3: Distribution of combinations of tick types in infested cattle slaughtered in Bamenda municipality.

Type of tick association	Tick type in the combinations by cattle breeder based on morphological features	Number of animals (N= 248)	Prevalence, % (95% CI)	P-value (χ2)	Odds ratio (95% CI)	P-value (χ2)
Single infestation	Amblyomma spp	74	29.84 (24.30-36.02)a	0.0002 (14.135)	1.92 (1.26 – 2.93)	0.0002 (14.135)
	Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) spp	45	18.15 (13.67-23.64)b		1	-
	Total	119	47.98 (41.64-54.38)A		-
Double co-infestations	Boophilus and Haemaphysalis	3	1.21 (0.31-3.79)a	<0.00001 (485.64)	3.02 (0.31 – 29.28)	0.313 (1.016)
	Amblyomma and Boophilus	112	45.16 (38.89-51.58)b		203.41 (28.09 – 1473.00)	<0.00001 (2000.30)
	Hyalomma and Boophilus	1	0.40 (0.02-2.57)a		1.00 (0.06 – 16.08)	1.00 (0.00)
	Rhipecephalus and Boophilus	1	0.40 (0.02-2.57)a		1	-
	Amblyomma and Rhipecephalus	2	0.81 (0.14-3.20)a		2.01 (0.18 – 22.29)	0.561 (0.337)
	Amblyomma and Haemaphysalis	5	2.02 (0.75-4.91)a		5.08 (0.59 – 43.82)	0.098 (2.733)
	Total	124	50.0 (43.63-56.37)A		-
Triple co-infestaions	Amblyomma, Boophilus and Haemaphysalis	4	1.61 (0.52-4.35)a	0.056 (3.60)	4.05 (0.45 – 36.49)	0.056 (3.60)
	Amblyomma, Boophilus and Hyalomma	1	0.40 (0.02-2.57)a		1
	Total	5	2.02 (0.75-4.91)B		-

 

a, b: same letter in a column for a category (row = type of tick association) are not significantly different (p>0.05). A, B: same letter in a column for single infestations and double, and triple co-infestations are not significantly different (p>0.05).

 

 

species indicated higher number of females than males for all species of ticks except for Amblyomma and Hyalomma ticks (Table 4). All species of ticks had one (1) male to one to ten (1–9.61) female ratio (average male: female ratio: 1:2.68) with the highest being Boophilus (1:9.61) and Hyalomma ticks (1:1) the lowest.

Discussion

Cattle destined for slaughter at the Bamenda municipal abattoir Cameroon are widely infested (72.73%) with different tick species. The infestation rate and relative abundance of tick species of cattle obtained in the present study is different from those reported in other parts of Africa. The infestation rate is lower than 99.25% but higher than 58.60% and 66.32% reported by (Hayatou et al., 2023a) for major cattle production ranches in Adamawa, East and Northwest regions of Cameroon, respectively. However, the prevalence rate in the present study is higher than 36.52% tick infestation of cattle in Chad (Zachée et al., 2020) and 32 – 41% (Bedaso et al., 2014; Tadesse and Sultan, 2014), 14.5 – 25.64 % (Abebe et al., 2010; Onu and Shiferaw, 2013; Tikit and Addis, 2011), 59.5% – 93.8% (Abdisa, 2012; Alemu et al., 2014; Gedilu et al., 2014; Kebede et al., 2018; Kemal et al., 2016a, b; Tadesse and Sultan, 2014) reported in parts of Ethiopia. Four genera of ticks were identified with Amblyomma variegatum (50.89%) and Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (47.63%) being the most abundant, followed by Haemaphysalis spp. (0.97%), Rhipecephalus spp. (0.41%), and Hyalomma spp. (0.10%). However, due to engorged status and/or absence of some morphological criteria, some tick types including the other Rhipicephalus spp. were not identified to species level. Overall, female ticks, Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus ticks were most abundant compared to male ticks and other tick species, respectively. Furthermore, the highest proportion of infested animals was due to Amblyomma variegatum (79.84%) followed by Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus (67.34%), Haemaphysalis spp. (4.81%), Hyalomma spp. (1.21%) and other Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) spp. (0.81%). Similarly, cattle infested by different tick genera with the most prevalent being Amblyomma, Boophilus, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus ticks have been recorded in Ethiopia (Asefa et al., 2017; de Castro, 1997; Kebede et al., 2018; Kemal et al., 2016a; Pegram et al., 2004), parts of Cameroon (Awa et al., 2015; Hayatou et al., 2023a; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., 2023, 2025; Sado-Yousseu et al., 2022; Silatsa et al., 2019), Chad (Zachée et al., 2020) and Algeria (Bedouhene et al., 2022). These different rates of infestation could be due to the difference in the agro-climatic and agroecological conditions, since tick activity was influenced by rainfall, altitude and atmospheric relative humidity (Vial, 2009; Awa et al., 2015; Bedouhene et al., 2022; Kemal et al., 2016a, b; Pegram et al., 1981; Silatsa et al., 2019; Wall and Shearer, 2001), management systems and animal health practice in these study sites (Abbas et al., 2014; Awa et al., 2015; Kemal et al., 2016a).

In this study, the male to female sex ratio for tick species indicated more females than males for all species of ticks except for Amblyomma and Hyalomma ticks. Overall a male tick to 1–9.61 females with the highest being among the Boophilus (1:9.61) and lowest among the Hyalomma ticks (1:1) were observed. These finding agrees with previous reports that the sex ratio of ticks varies by species and population, and is usually female-biased (Davey and Cooksey, 1988; Eberhart-Phillips et al., 2018; Van Oosten et al., 2018). Sexes of ticks can contribute differently to pathogen transmission (Abbasi, 2024) and the dynamics of sex ratio characteristics can ultimately influence the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases (Abbasi, 2024; Van Oosten et al., 2018). However, skewed sex ratios under natural circumstances may be influenced by several different factors including unequal mortality between males and females (Kiszewski et al., 2001), adaptive consequences such as males competing for access to females, females producing female-biased or male-biased offspring, pathogens depending on female ticks for their (transovarial) transmission (Eberhart-Phillips et al., 2018; Kiszewski et al., 2001; Van Oosten et al., 2018) and developmental stage of the tick (Davey and Cooksey, 1988). Also, more females than males reached adulthood among many tick types due to XX – XO sex determining mechanism (Davey and Cooksey, 1988) and adult females usually feed for several days increasing their chances of survival and relative abundance on the host compared to adult males that feed for short durations (Vial, 2009; Van Oosten et al., 2018). The effect of tick collection technique, tick host, tick species, ridiculous lifestyle, indiscriminate host feeding, blood meal duration, flexible development cycle environment (area of collection and climate) and season (Vial, 2009; Abbasi, 2024; Davey and Cooksey, 1988; Eberhart-Phillips et al., 2018) on sex ratio have been reported. Female ticks are more likely to be caught because they are more aggressive about finding a host for need of blood meal than males. Differences in sex ratios of ticks between mountain and plain environments have reported (Abbasi, 2024).

The biased sex ratio towards female observed in the present study differs from that of Silatsa et al. (2019) and Huruma et al. (2015) who reported tick sex ratios of tick collected from infested cattle that varied with tick species but was skewed towards male, except for R. microplus and R. decoloratus in different agro-ecological zones of Cameroon and Ethiopia, respectively. Though the reason for this different is uncertain, factors such as varying agroecological environments and climate (eg. season), endemic tick-borne diseases and health status of cattle, different tick species, tick feeding and breeding pattern (eg. engorged female ticks drops off to the ground to lay eggs while the males tend to remain on host for longer period mating other females before dropping off), collection techniques and size of ticks (e.g. small size male R. decoloratus which may not be seen during collection), different areas of production of cattle and husbandry systems which could contributed to the biology and sex ratio of ticks were widely observed in the study.

Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus were most abundant compared to the other genera in agreement with previous reports (Awa et al., 2015; Hayatou et al., 2023a; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., 2022, 2023; Sado-Yousseu et al., 2022; Silatsa et al., 2019) that observed predominance of Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) spp in other agro-ecological zones of Cameroon which have similar climatic conditions as the study area. The most important environmental factors that influence the occurrence of ticks in a biotope are climate related such as temperature and relative humidity (Awa et al., 2015; Bedouhene et al., 2022; Bouchard et al., 2019; Kemal et al., 2016a; Silatsa et al., 2019; Wall and Shearer, 2001). Though the same factor affects the survival of all tick species to varying degrees, each tick species has its particular threshold temperature and moisture during their life time. The survival of ticks also depends on the presence of hosts suitable for reproduction by the adults (Awa et al., 2015; Bouchard et al., 2019; Kemal et al., 2016a, b; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., 2023; Silatsa et al., 2019; Walker et al., 2003; Wall and Shearer, 2001). At total of 19 Haemaphysalis spp. was identified corresponding to an infestation rate of 3.52 % (12/341) in the present study similar to Ngnindji-Youdje et al. (2022) who reported a prevalence of Haemaphysalis tick infestation on cattle of 4.5% (43/944).

Though breed, sex, age, body condition and locality of origin of animals did not affect the prevalence of tick infestation of cattle in the present study, these factors have been found to significantly influence tick infestation of cattle (Hayatou et al., 2023a; Zachée et al., 2020). However, the proportions of Red Mbororo and White Fulani breeds, male cattle, 3 to 6 years and > 6 years old cattle, moderate and fat cattle were significantly higher compared to Goudali and Hybrid, female cattle, <3 years old cattle, and thin cattle, respectively. In addition, most cattle screened in the present study originated from Bui, Donga-Mantung and Menchum Divisions and showed significantly higher proportions among the tick infested cattle compared to those from other divisions.

Vial (2009) had reported that relatively more zebu cattle reject ticks than cross/ hybrids cattle, contrary to Rehman et al. (2017) and Asefa et al. (2017) who reported higher infestation rate in local breeds than cross/ hybrids breed cattle in parts of Africa. Higher tick infestation rates have been reported in male and adult/ ageing cattle in Nigeria (Ikpeze et al., 2015; Musa et al., 2014) and Ethiopia (Kebede et al., 2018) contrary to higher rates reported in female and adult/ ageing cattle than male and young cattle in Ethiopia (Bossena and Abdu, 2012; Kemal et al., 2016a, b). Also, Asefa et al. (2017) recorded higher prevalence of tick infestation in adult cattle relative to young cattle and found no difference in rates due to sex of the cattle population.

In the present study, the proportion of infestation and relative abundance of ticks was higher in the male cattle, > 3 years old cattle, Red Mbororo and White Fulani cattle compared to the female cattle, younger cattle and other cattle breeds, respectively. The Red Mbororo and White Fulani cattle are the predominant cattle breed and cattle destined for slaughter are mostly males and > 3 years old in the Northwest region of Cameroon. These categories of cattle were greater in number in this study and seemed to have been more exposed to ticks in comparison to the females and younger animals. Overall, the number of female ticks was higher than the male ticks. The male to female sex ratio of tick species determined in the study indicated higher number of females than males for all species of ticks except Amblyomma and Hyaloma spp. The male: female tick ratio was one male to about ten females (average of 1:2.68) with the highest being Boophilus (1:9.61) and Hyalomma ticks (1:1) the lowest. This finding is contrary to the results reported earlier (Asefa et al., 2017; Bedaso et al., 2014; Ikpeze et al., 2015; Kebede et al., 2018; Musa et al., 2014; Zachée et al., 2020) who stated significantly higher numbers of male than female ticks. The higher numbers of female ticks on cattle recorded in the study was associated with suitable climatic factors during the study period (June to August) (Awa et al., 2015; Bouchard et al., 2019; Silatsa et al., 2019; Wall and Shearer, 2001) when breeding female ticks will be engorged and dropped off to the ground to lay eggs, while males tend to remain dependent on the host for several months to continue feed, moult and mate with other females on the host before dropping (Kebede et al., 2018; Solomon et al., 2001). Similar to Kebede et al. (2018) and Tessema et al. (2010) female Boophilus ticks outnumbered the males due to the small size of males, compared to the females, which could be easily missed during examination and collection.

The different tick genera had different sites for attachment on the host body in this study. However, ticks were found throughout the body with the most preferred site being the perineal and thoraco-abdominal regions followed by the head, neck back, legs, inguinal and tails regions. Similar preferential and predilection sites for attachment of ticks on cattle have been previously descried (Bedouhene et al., 2022; Ikpeze et al., 2015; Kebede et al., 2018; Kemal et al., 2016b; Stachurski, 2000; Tikit and Addis, 2011). However, short hypostome ticks (e.g., Rhicephalus) have been observed to prefer upper body parts while long hypostome ticks (e.g., Ambyomma) attaches to lower parts of the animal body (Stachurski, 2000; Tikit and Addis, 2011).

Single infestations and co-infestations of various combinations of two and three tick types were widely observed in the study. This agrees with previous findings of co-infestations of various multiples of combinations (such as two, three and four) tick types and veterinary and human health concerns (Awa et al., 2015; Hayatou et al., 2023a; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., 2022, 2023, 2025; Parola and Raoult, 2001; Silatsa et al., 2019; Zachée et al., 2020).

Though tick infestations of cattle were widely observed in the present study, the level of awareness of farmers about the impacts of ticks on livestock production and productivity is unclear. Ticks directly affect the performance and productivity of cattle such as decrease in production, reduced weight gain, decrease in milk production, decrease in growth rate, poor quality of hide and skin, and reduced birth rate. Ticks are the main vectors of many pathogens of animal diseases and also cause serious problems to human health (Abbas et al., 2014; Awa et al., 2015; Gérard et al., 2017; Hayatou et al., 2023a; INRA, 2017; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., 2022, 2023, 2025; Parola and Raoult, 2001; Silatsa et al., 2019). Ticks can induce huge production and economic losses in livestock industry (Duguma et al., 2012; Jongejan and Uilenberg, 2004; Minjauw and McLeod, 2003; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., 2022, 2025; Perry et al., 2002).

There are increasing concerns about the hazards caused by tick and tick-borne diseases, tick ecology, introduction of new ticks, tick control measures and level of awareness of livestock breeder on tick and tick borne diseases (Awa et al., 2015; Hayatou et al., 2023b; Ngnindji-Youdje et al., , ; ; ). Further investigation on the association of trade activity and agriculture (; ) and environmental, food, access to water, availability of veterinary products, social, technical and health care constraints (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ) are essential for development and improvement of the cattle industries in most African countries including Cameroon.

Conclusion

It is concluded that the prevalence and intensity of tick infestations of cattle are major problems in the Northwest region of Cameroon. Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus, Haemaphysalis spp., Hyalomma spp. and other Rhipecephalus (Boophilus) spp. are widely reported in this study. The perineal and thoraco-abdominal regions were the most preferred site for ticks. The relative abundance of tick infestation of cattle was significantly influenced by breed, sex, age, body condition, location of origin of the animals. The study revealed single infestations and co-infestations of combinations of two and three tick types, and provides elements for elaborating appropriate strategic tick control measures. The importance of enhancing the awareness of farmers about the impacts of ticks on livestock production and productivity needs to be considered.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the Delegation for Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries of Northwest Region Cameroon for allowing the collection and analysis of ticks from abattoir cattle. The authors also appreciated the generous cooperation of the cattle professionals of the Bamenda municipal abattoir, Cameroon.

Novelty Statement

This study has highlighted the most common ticks and the associated risk factors that affect the prevalence and intensity of tick infestation of cattle in the Northwest region Cameroon.

Author’s Contribution

MCK, PJD and JAN conceived, designed and coordinated the study. MCK and JAN designed data collections tools, methodology and implementation. MCK, PJD, and BKS contributed materials and carried out field investigation and data entry. MCK and JAN supervised the field and laboratory work as well as data entry. PJD, BKN and JAN were involved in data validation, statistical analysis and interpretation. PJD and BKN drafted the original manuscript which was reviewed and edited by MCK and JAN. All authors participated in preparation and critical reviewed of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

No specific funding was received for this study.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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