Research Article

Impact of Water Management Techniques on Yield and Quality of Basmati Rice: A Study on Alternate Wetting and Drying Strategies

Muddassir Ali1*, Fraz Ahmad Khan1, Hafiz Mutther Javed1, Syed Ali Zafar1, Atif Naeem2, Ahmad Jawad2, Bilal Ashraf2 and Tahira Bibi1

1Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, Sheikhupura, 39018, Pakistan; 2PARC Rice Programme, Kala Shah Kaku, Lahore, 39020, Pakistan.

Received | March 24, 2023; Accepted | January 24, 2025; Published | March 09, 2025

*Correspondence | Muddassir Ali, Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, Sheikhupura, 39018, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Ali, M., F.A. Khan, H.M. Javed, S.A. Zafar, A. Naeem, A. Jawad, B.A. and T. Bibi. 2025. Impact of water management techniques on yield and quality of basmati rice: a study on alternate wetting and drying strategies. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 41(1): 383-395.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2025/41.1.383.395

Keywords | Basmati rice, AWD, Conventional flooding, Milling quality, Cooking quality

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) plays a major role as a staple food in global food security (Fawibe et al., 2020) as it feeds around 60% of the world’s population, making it the most extensively consumed grain crop (Patel et al., 2010). Rice is an irrigated crop, and about 75% of the world’s rice is farmed in lowland irrigated fields (Fageria, 2007), which require a substantial amount of water (2500 l/kg of rice) (Bouman, 2009). Flood-irrigated rice, the most extensively used rice cultivation approach in Asia, needs a large amount of freshwater (Bouman et al., 2007) ranging from 700 to 5300 mm, depending on climate, soil characteristics, rice culture, and hydrological circumstances (Tuong and Bouman 2003). Rice irrigation requires a greater share of freshwater in Asia, accounting for around 50% of total freshwater consumption (Kukal, 2004). Rice irrigation demands for freshwater will continue to rise unless water conservation strategies are implemented and enforced to reduce water consumption, as global rice production is expected to increase by 70% by 2030 to feed a growing population (Maclean et al., 2002). Water is an essential component for nutrient absorption from the roots to the rest of the plant and grains, as well as a chemical reaction reagent and solvent for the translocation of metabolites and minerals. It also promotes cell growth by increasing turgor pressure (Crusciol et al., 2008). Rice growth, including photosynthesis and transpiration, is hampered by high soil moisture tension, resulting in reduced growth and insufficient grain-filling mechanisms (Samonte et al., 2001), which reduces rice yield and grain quality (Crusciol et al., 2008; Tomlins et al., 2005), particularly during grain filling (Pandey et al., 2014).

Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is one strategy for reducing the quantity of water required in rice irrigation. In AWD, the field is not constantly flooded (CF); rather, after removing ponded water, the soil is allowed to dry for a few days before being flooded again (Lampayan et al., 2015). AWD may lower the amount of irrigation water utilized in paddy fields (Belder et al., 2004; Bouman et al., 2001; Moya et al., 2004) in comparison to flooded irrigation, while at the same time improving rice production, milling, and appearance quality (Lv et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2020). AWD may increase water-use efficiency (Yao et al., 2012), according to some research, but it will lower rice production (Wang et al., 2018). Mote et al. (2021) found that AWD at 10-15 cm maintains the grain yield at CF rice. Zhang et al. (2023) observed that AWD increased the grain yield by 6% compared to CF. Rising food demand and diminishing water supply are threatening global food security (Mancosu et al., 2015). However, in recent years, the viability of flood-irrigated rice systems has been threatened by labor shortages and competition for water from non-agricultural industries (Fawibe et al., 2020). There is also an immediate need to increase rice production with less water to ensure consistency in fulfilling the demand for rice. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of irrigation regimes on total irrigation, water productivity, grain yield, milling yield, and cooking quality of basmati rice varieties.

Materials and Methods

Study site

The experiments were conducted at the Rice Research Institute at Kala Shah Kaku, Sheikhupura, Punjab, Pakistan (31.7214o N, 74.2702o E) for two rice seasons (2016 and 2017). The climate is sub-humid, with an average of 585 mm of rainfall each year (Zahid et al., 2020). The yearly maximum temperature varied between 4 and 48 degrees Celsius. Relative humidity levels from May to September ranged from 35-70%, while the yearly light length from January to May varied from 5.1 to 10.4 hours. Before the 2016–17 experiment, nine composite soil samples with three replications were taken at the end of April 2016 at a depth of 0 to 45 cm, and their physio-chemical characteristics were examined (Table 1).

 

Table 1: Soil properties.

Properties	Units	Soil depth
		0 – 15 cm	15 – 30 cm	30 – 45 cm
Texture	–	Clay loam	Clay loam	Clay loam
pH	–	8.1 – 8.3	8.3 – 8.5	8.3 – 8.5
EC	mS/cm	1.3 – 2.1	1.2 – 1.7	1.2 – 1.7
Organic matter	%	0.54 – 0.69	0.44 – 0.64	0.38 – 0.48
Saturation	%	37 – 43	35 – 42	36 – 40
Available P	mg/kg	4.1 – 6.8	3.8 – 6.2	3.8 – 6.2
Available K	mg/kg	105 – 135	95 – 121	95 – 121

 

Experimental layout

The study was carried out with 48 trials. The four irrigation regimes such as conventional flood irrigation (CFI); AWD at 15 cm (AWD15); AWD at 20 cm (AWD20); and AWD at 25 cm (AWD25) and four basmati rice varieties Punjab Basmati (V1), Chenab Basmati (V2), Kisan Basmati (V3) and Basmati 515 (V4) were used as independent variables. The response variables were total irrigation input mm (TI), water productivity kg/m3 (WP), grain yield t/ha (GY), head rice % (HR), broken % (BR), average grain length mm (AGL), cooked grain length mm (CGL), elongation ratio (ER), and bursting % (BT). The total experimental area (29.62 m × 22.33 m) was 661.42 m2. The area was divided into four blocks, split into twelve plots. The area of each plot was 10.89 m2. Two buffer zones of 0.46 m and 0.23 m were provided between the blocks and plots respectively. A bund was built around each plot’s perimeter to prevent irrigation water runoff, and polythene sheets were positioned up to 0.46 m deep into the levee margins along the inner perimeter of each plot to minimize seepage losses between them.

In AWD, the irrigation level was monitored using PVC field water tubes (15 cm in diameter and 40 cm in length) that were perforated with 2 mm holes all the way around up to 30 cm in length (Richards and Sander, 2014b; Lampayan et al., 2015). The field water tubes (perforated portion of 30 cm) were placed into the plots 15 days after transplanting. The soil within the tube was removed, allowing the bottom to be seen (Srinivasulu et al., 2018). The amount of irrigation water applied was monitored using a water meter installed on the irrigation pump. On the field, a metallic measuring tape was used to manually measure the water’s depth in the field water tubes. After lowering the water level in each plot to around 15, 20, and 25 cm below the soil’s surface, irrigation was applied to re-flood the field to a depth of roughly 5 cm. To minimize spikelet sterility and yield loss during the most crucial rice growth period, the field was ponded with 5 cm of water from one week before flowering to the week after (Bouman et al., 2007; Richards and Sander, 2014a). In conventional flooded irrigation, the 5 cm ponded throughout the rice season until two weeks before harvest.

Data collection

The water attributes such as total water input (TI) and water productivity (WP), grain yield (GY), head rice % (HR), broken % (BR), average grain length (AGL), cooked grain length (CGL), elongation ratio (ER), and bursting % (BT) were measured in this study. The total water input was calculated using a formula:

Total water input (mm)= Total irrigation applied (mm) + Raimfall (mm)

The water productivity was calculated using a formula (Cetin and Akinci, 2022; Lampayan et al., 2015).

Water productivity (kg/m3) = Grain yield (kg)/ Total water supplied (m3)

The grain yield was calculated by harvesting each plot area (10.89 m2). The grain yield was computed at 14% moisture content. For milling quality, a 2 kg sample was taken for each treatment. In the milling process, the samples were dried to 11 % in a test dryer (Satake Engineering Co., LTD, Tokyo, Japan), after drying the samples were cleaned in cleaner (ALMCO, IOWA, USA).). The clean sample was then de-husked in a husker (THU 35 A Satake Engineering Co., LTD, Tokyo, Japan) and polished for 25 seconds in a polisher (model:65-220-50-3, Grain Machinery Mfg. Corp., Miami, FL, USA). After that grading was done to separate the unbroken rice using a grader (Nawaz Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd, Sheikhupura, Pakistan) (Sultana et al., 2022). For calculating milling yield, the following formulas were used:

where;

WRR = Rough rice weight (g), HR = Head rice (%), WHR= Head rice weight (g), and WBroken rice = Broken rice weight (g).

The vernier caliper (Mitutoyo, Kawasaki, Japan) was used for AGL. The CGL was measured by taking an average of 10 random cooked rice lined on a stainless-steel ruler for CGL. The elongation ratio and bursting % were determined using Cruz and Khush (2000) methods. The elongation ratio was calculated using the formula:

Elongation Ration= average length of cooked grain (mm) /Average length of grain (mm)

Statistical analysis

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using R software to test the significance at p = 0.05. The means were compared using Tukey HSD. The interaction graph was generated using the ggplot package in R software.

Results and Discussion

Analysis of variance

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) results of all response variables is presented in Table 2. Results show that the interaction effect (treatment × variety × year) was highly significant (p < 0.01) on water

 

Table 2: ANOVA for response variables.

Effect	DF	TI	WP	GY	HR	BR	AGL	CGL	ER	BT
R	2	37755.01 **	0.01**	0.39**	21.31 ns	24.81 ns	0.1 ns	0.17ns	0.01ns	0.07 ns
T	3	2336438.9 **	0.27**	25.62 **	258.62**	300.24**	0.6 **	0.67ns	0.01ns	95.4**
V	3	73102.9 **	0.31**	26.32 **	1243.38 **	1190.53 **	2.87**	40.3**	0.51 **	108.9 **
Y	1	227176.04 **	0.06**	1.1 **	0.01 ns	13.32 ns	0.06ns	0.35ns	0.02ns	3.37 *
T × V	9	8852.8**	0 **	0.76**	8.26 ns	10.12 ns	0.1 ns	0.2 ns	0.01ns	8.67**
T × Y	3	416.18ns	0 *	0.1 ns	1.24 ns	8.2 ns	0.05ns	0.11ns	0 ns	4.68**
V × Y	3	665.68ns	0.01**	0.67**	4.02 ns	1.05 ns	0.05ns	0.73ns	0.02ns	11.9**
T × V × Y	9	1460.23 ns	0 **	0.05 ns	6.53 ns	8 ns	0.06ns	0.15ns	0 ns	9.84**
Err.	62	1797.72	0	0.07	9.95	8.91	0.07	0.39	0.01	0.47

Note: * = p<0.05, ** = p<0.01, and ns = not significant. R = Replication, T = Treatment, V = Variety, Y = Year.

 

Table 3: Means comparisons test of response variables for treatments.

Treatment	TI	WP	GY	HR	BR	AGL	CGL	ER	BT
CF	1156 a	0.387 d	4.51 a	50.7 a	14.75 c	8.15 a	14.20 a	1.73 a	3.20 d
AWD 15	725.6 b	0.630 a	4.61 a	52.99 a	12.22 d	8.08 a	14.27 a	1.76 a	4.83 c
AWD 20	577.3 c	0.591 b	3.01 b	48.07 b	17.12 b	8.05 a	13.98 a	1.73 a	6.12 b
AWD 25	434.3 d	0.523 c	2.58 c	45.39 c	20.53 a	7.79 b	13.93 a	1.78 a	7.91 a

 

productivity (WP) and bursting (BT). The effect of interaction (treatment × variety) was highly significant (p<0.01) on total irrigation (TI) and grain yield (GY). Treatment had a substantial influence (p<0.01) on head rice % (HR), broken % (BR), and average grain length (AGL). Variety had a significant impact (p<0.01) on head rice percentage (HR), broken percentage (BR), average grain length (AGL), cooked grain length (CGL), and elongation ratio (ER). The Tukey HSD all-pairwise comparisons test of response variables for treatments is shown in Table 3. The results indicate that the treatment did not affect the AGL, CGL, and ER of basmati rice cultivars. In all treatments, the AWD 15 outperformed in terms of water productivity, grain yield, and head rice %.

Influence of independent variables on response variables

Grain yield and Bursting %

The independent variables were four irrigation regimes (CF, AWD 15, AWD 20, and AWD 25) and four basmati rice varieties (Punjab Basmati V1, Chenab Basmati V2, Kisan Basmati V3, and Basmati 515 V4). Figure 1 shows that the grain yield was maximum at AWD 15 and minimum at AWD 25 of all varieties. The maximum grain yield was 4.80, 5.86, 2.81, and 4.97 for V1, V2, V3, and V4 respectively. The AWD 15 demonstrates equal grain yield to CF in V1 and V2 but boosts grain yield by 5% and 6% in V3 and V4 compared to CF. Previous studies have found the same trend. Mote et al. (2021) found that AWD at 10-15 cm maintains the grain yield at CF rice. Zhang et al. (2023) observed that AWD increased the grain yield by 6% compared to CF.

Bursting is the opening up of some or all grains longitudinally, to varying degrees or depths, along the ventral or dorsal border or even along the lateral edges (Sanusi et al., 2017; Bhattacharya, 2011; Hassan et al., 2011). The rupture might be little and insignificant, or it can be deep and wide, causing the grain to open like a book. Results of this study indicated that bursting % (BT) emerged as significantly affected by the interaction of irrigation treatment and variety (Table 2). The rice grains of V2 grown under AWD 25 irrigation treatment showed maximum busted grains (14.3% and 9.0%) followed by AWD 20 (6.7% and 5.6%) and the lowest fractions (2.0% and 3.3%) of bursting were recorded for V4 when cultivated under farmer practice in the year 2016 and 2017 respectively (Figure 1). These results were consistent with those of previous research (Ali et al., 1992; Ali et al., 2012). Overall, the AWD 15 depicted a low bursting % in all varieties. The maximum bursting at AWD 25 might be due to poor water supply. Poor water supply circumstances during the grain filling period cause excessive abdominal whiteness in the grains, which is bad for cooking quality (Pandey et al., 2014). The high percentage of

 

bursting might be explained by the fact that the amylose content of milled rice dropped as soil moisture content decreased (Renmin and Yuanshu, 1989).

Head rice %, broken %, and average grain length

The interaction effects significantly affect the head rice %. The head rice % was maximum at AWD 15 for all varieties except V2. In V2 the head rice % was slightly high in CF compared to AWD 15. The lowest head rice % of all varieties was at AWD 25. The head rice % of V1, V2, V3, and V4 at AWD 15 was 53.68, 55.20, 44.11, and 58.96% respectively (Figure 2). The results were concise with the previous trend. Water stress affects the grain quality (Chen and Zhu, 1999). Moisture stress at any stage will affect the milled grain quality (Singh, 2000). The milling quality of grains depends on both the yield and the rate of broken kernels of milled rice (Hasan and Henry 2020; de Oliveira et al., 2020). Head rice percentage was significantly increased, under water-saving irrigation (Yang et al., 2007) but as we increased the water deficit level beyond a certain limit (AWD 15) milled and head rice recovery reduced during both years. These results were synchronized with the findings of Huang et al. (2008) and harmonized that certain levels of water-saving irrigation can improve milling recovery, and quality traits (Kaur et al., 2017; Ishfaq et al., 2021) which could be due to a deep root system, lower sterile spikelet ratio, and better nutrient acquisition from the lower layer of soil (Ishfaq et al., 2020). Head rice recovery increased significantly at moderate soil water potential -20 to -25 kPa at 15–20 cm while reduced at soil water potential -40 to -50 kPa, when compared with those under continuously flooded (CFI) (Zhang et al., 2008). Furthermore, numerous studies found that modest AWD significantly improved grain quality by enhancing milling, grain appearance, and cooking quality, thus increasing market value (Zhang et al., 2008; Darzi-Naftchali et al., 2017). According to Cheng et al. (2003) water scarcity affected brown rice and head rice recovery. Similarly, Huang et al. (2012) discovered a decrease in rice grain quality as water stress increased. With a few notable exceptions, it was found that cultivars planted using traditional flooding transplanting techniques had greater percentages of brown (head) and polished (white) rice and had suffered the fewest losses of brown broken rice, husk, polished broken rice, and bran (Jabran et al., 2015). Additionally, Jabran et al. (2017), revealed that Shaheen Basmati’s aerobic rice cultivation had the lowest percentages of polished (white) rice (64.2-66.9%) and brown (head) rice (65.3%). AWD (at - 20 kPa) gave a higher percentage of white head rice by 15% compared to aerobic rice cultivation and increased the milling recoveries significantly as reported by Ishfaq et al. (2021).

Results indicated that the broken percentage was significantly influenced by cultivars and irrigation treatments (Figure 2). The broken % was minimum at AWD 15 for all rice varieties. The broken % was 11, 9.7, 21.5, and 6.7% for V1, V2, V3, and V4 respectively

 

at AWD 15. The highest percentage of broken rice (20.6% and 20.5%) was obtained in AWD 25. Reduced growth and inadequate grain filling are the results of various physiological processes (photosynthesis and transpiration) being affected by the soil moisture stress, which is the cause of the rise in broken rice for all cultivars (Samonte et al., 2001). According to Xie et al. (2001), the grain-filling pattern had a substantial effect on final grain quality. Meanwhile, large variability in grain quality within a spike was detected due to differing grain filling rates and nutrient assimilation competition (Pandey et al., 2014). Jennings (1979) reported that grain shape (slender or bold), size (long or extra-long grain), partially flattened grain, and appreciable white belly contributed to the increase in breakage of rice grain. Among all cultivars, V3 with extra-long grain gave maximum broken rice (30%) (Figure 2). V4 performed the best with a minimum broken % (14%). The findings of this study were in line with the study of Ishfaq et al., (2021) who reported that V4 performed better and had the highest percentage of head rice as compared to V2 when grown under an anaerobic rice cultivation system in comparison to direct seeded rice cultivation system. It can be concluded that water management during the ripening stage can reduce grain breakage as reported by Adu-Kwarteng et al. (2003). Soil moisture stress disrupted various physiological processes (photosynthesis and transpiration), resulting in decreased growth and poor grain filling (Samonte et al., 2001). Moreover, non-significant interaction of water deficit and broken rice was reported (Huang et al., 2012; da Silva et al., 2018;) while some of the previous studies (2009; Pandy et al., 2014; Ishfaq et al., 2021) indicated that the quality of milled rice grains increased with under water stress. The average grain length results revealed that the effect of different irrigation treatments and their interaction with cultivars was non-significant (Table 2). Our results followed the study (Ali et al., 2012), while found contradictory to Dabney and Hoff (1989) who reported that rice cultivated under sprinkler irrigation systems produced reduced grain size than flooded rice, resulting in higher milling losses (Mundy et al., 1989). However, the average grain length of V3 was recorded as the highest in all irrigation treatments because V3 was an extra-long grain variety among all.

Cooked grain length and elongation ratio

The effect of variety was significant on cooked grain length and elongation ratio. The interaction effect was non-significant. The cooked grain length and elongation ratio were maximum at AWD 15 in all varieties. The V3 and V4 had a maximum cooked grain length of 15.78 mm and an elongation ratio of 1.91 respectively at AWD 15. Several studies have been conducted to assess the effects of various irrigation systems on water use. The effect of a decreasing water supply on rice quality is little known (Pandey et al., 2014). According to Singh and Singh (1997) and Cruz and Khush (2000), environmental conditions, particularly temperature at the time of ripening, have a significant impact on the cooking quality of Basmati rice (Cruz et al., 1989). Basmati rice cultivated in water-stressed circumstances, particularly during the grain development stage, exhibits excessive abdominal whiteness in grains, and cooking quality suffers as a result (Bhattacharjee et al., 2002). During both years of experimentation, the effect of irrigation treatments on CGL was determined to be non-significant. However, Ali et al. (1992) investigated the effects of different land preparation methods on rice grain quality and discovered that complete puddling (under 30 days wet conditions) before transplanting resulted in the highest cooked grain length, protein content, and gel consistency than dry land preparation followed by flooding and transplanting due to improper development under water stress and high temperature causing loose packing of the starch molecules (Ali et al., 1991). A minor effect of cultivars was seen on CGL and the highest CGL (15.3 mm and 15.9 mm) was recorded for V3 followed by V4 (14.6 mm and 14.9 mm) in the years 2016 and 2017, respectively. V3 indicated a higher percentage of CGL showing a significant difference from V1 and V2 during both experimental years. Under 20 cm deficit water level treatment, CGL percentage of 14.33%, 13.07%, 13.43%, and 15.23% was experienced for V4, V2, V1, and V3 (Figure 3). V3 indicated a significant difference from V1 and V2 (Figure 3). It was evident that V3 might be perceived as possessing better-cooked grain length than other cultivars. Cheng et al. (2003) reported that the upland rice cultivars exhibited more fluctuation in appearance and nutritional quality than lowland cultivars, whereas, lowland cultivars showed less consistency in milling and cooking-eating quality.

Cooked kernel elongation ratio is the most important quality trait, that differentiates the highly valued aromatic rice from the other rice types (Jain et al., 2006). In this study, the elongation ratio was measured and results indicated that different irrigation treatments and their interactions with cultivars had a non-significant effect on the elongation ratio of rice kernels but cultivars had a significant effect on the elongation ratio (Table 2). These results were found contrary to the findings of a similar former study. The authors concluded that irrigation treatments significantly affect the elongation ratio (Sandhu et al., 2014). In this study, the highest value of elongation ratio (1.91) was recorded for V4 followed by V3 with 1.84, respectively (Figure 3). V1 and V2 showed a lower elongation ratio than V3 and V4 (Figure 2c and 2d). In prior research, the influence of varietal variations on the elongation ratio was significant (Sanusi et al., 2017). According to Danbaba et al. (2012), the cooked length-to-breadth ratio and amylose concentration affect the rice’s elongation ratio. Amylose concentration is positively correlated with longitudinal kernel elongation (Sood et al., 1983). Chaudhury and Ghosh (1978) have also found that the protein concentration of rice grains influences the elongation of rice during cooking. Rohilla et al. (2000) investigated the effect of stored grain and found that stored rice cooks relatively dry, hard, and fluffy, with thin gruel and good elongation as opposed to freshly harvested rice, which becomes very soft, moist, and sticky after cooking, resulting in thick gruel and less elongation because grain hardness and GT increase, increasing swelling and elongation of rice grain during cooking (Ahuja et al., 1995).

 

Total irrigation and water productivity

In this study, Figure 4 shows that the total irrigation was maximum at CF and minimum at AWD 25 in all rice varieties. As per the above discussion, the AWD 15 outperformed in terms of grain yield and quality. So, the mean of total irrigation at AWD 15 for all rice varieties was 725 mm. The total irrigation of rice varieties at AWD 15 was 37.2% lower than CF. In the case of water productivity, the maximum and minimum values were at AWD 15 and CF respectively. The water productivity of rice varieties at AWD 15 was 38.7% higher than CF. In summary, the AWD technique not only saves water but also enhances water productivity.

Selection of irrigation regime

The best suitable irrigation regime for basmati rice varieties was selected in this study. The selection was based on the following criteria: water productivity, grain yield, head rice %, and elongation ratio should be maximum whereas the total water inputs, broken %, and bursting % should be minimum. Based on the criteria, the AWD at 15 cm (AWD 15) was selected for basmati rice varieties.

Heatmap for trait correlation

The heatmap was developed to study the trait correlation (Figure 5). The graph shows that the cooked grain length and elongation ratio were positively correlated with an R-value of 0.82. The correlation between grain yield and broken % was negative with an R-value of – 0.74. Moreover, the correlation between grain yield and total irrigation, and grain yield and head rice % was positive with an R-value of 0.67 and 0.77 respectively.

 

 

Conclusions and Recommendations

In this study, the four irrigation regimes (Conventional flooding, Alternate Wetting and Drying at 15 cm, 20 cm, and 25 cm) were tested for four basmati rice varieties (Punjab, Chenab, Kisan, and Basmati 515). The response variables were total irrigation (mm), water productivity (kg/m3), grain yield t/ha, milling, and cooking qualities. The result reveals that the interaction effect of independent variables was highly significant (p < 0.01) on total irrigation (mm), water productivity (kg/m3), grain yield (t/ha), and bursting %. Among all irrigation regimes, the AWD at 15 cm outperformed. Results show that the grain yield, head rice %, and average grain length were maximum at AWD 15, while the broken and bursting % were minimum at AWD 15 and CFI in all rice varieties during both years. The grain yield, bursting %, and head rice % of VI, V2, V3, and V4 were 4.80, 5.86, 2.81, 4.97 t/ha, 8, 4, 5, 3%, and 53.7, 55.2, 44.1, and 59% respectively at AWD 15. The total irrigation and water productivity of rice varieties at AWD 15 were 37.2% lower and 38.7% higher than CFI, respectively. In conclusion, the AWD at 15 cm should be adopted at the farmer’s fields for a particular soil type (clay loam) to get maximum grain yield with high quality. Furthermore, this work paves the way for future research into the soil type and physicochemical attributes of coarse (inbred and hybrid) and fine (aromatic and non-aromatic) extra-long grain rice cultivars in different soil types and climatic zones.

Acknowledgments

We would like to pay thanks to the Director (Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku) for supporting this research study.

Novelty Statement

This original research adds new knowledge in evaluating the quality of rice through the application of AWD irrigation technology, which is the opening of new horizons in rice research, linked with the climate change scenario in Pakistan.

Authors’ Contribution

Muddassir Ali and Fraz Ahmad Khan: designed the research experiment.

Muddassir Ali, Fraz Ahmad Khan, and Hafiz Mutther Javed: conducted the experiment, collected the data, and performed the lab. Analysis.

Muddassir Ali, Fraz Ahmad Khan, Hafiz Mutther Javed, and Syed Ali Zafar, Atif Naeem, Ahmad Jawad, Bilal Ashraf, and Tahira Bibi: contributed in performing the data analysis, review and editing of the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declared that they have no conflicts of interest in this work.

References

Adu-Kwarteng, E., W.O. Ellis, I. Oduro and J.T. Manful. 2003. Rice grain quality: a comparison of local varieties with new varieties under study in Ghana. Food Control, 14: (7): 507-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-7135(03)00063-X

Ahuja, S.C., D.V.S. Panwar, A. Uma and K.R. Gupta. 1995. Basmati rice: the scented pearl. Published by Directorate of Publications, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India. p:63.

Ali, A., M.A. Karim, L. Ali, S.S. Ali, M. Jamil, G. Hassan and A. Mazid. 1992. Relation between rice grain quality and land preparation methods. International Rice Research Newsletter, 17: 3-7.

Ali, A., M.A. Karim, S.S. Ali and A. Majid. 1991. Relationship of transplanting time to grain quality in Basmati 385. International Rice Research Newsletter, 16: (5): 11.

Ali, R.I., N. Iqbal, M.U. Saleem, and M. Akhtar. 2012. Effect of different planting methods on economic yield and grain quality of rice. Int. J. Agric. Appl. Sci., 4: (1): 28-34.

Belder, P., B.A.M. Bouman, R. Cabangon, L. Guoan, E.J.P Quilang, L. Yuanhua, J.H.J. Spiertz and T.P. Tuong. 2004. Effect of water-saving irrigation on rice yield and water use in typical lowland conditions in Asia. Agric. Water Manage., 65: 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2003.09.002

Bhattacharjee, P., R.S. Singhal and P.R. Kulkarni. 2002. Basmati rice: a review. Int. j. food sci. technol., 37: (1): 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2621.2002.00541.x

Bhattacharya, K.R. 2011. Cooking quality of rice. Chapter 6. p. 164-192. In: K.R. Bhattacharya Rice Quality: A Guide to Rice Properties and Analysis. Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge UK.

Bouman, B. 2009. How much water does rice use. Manage., 69: 115-133.

Bouman, B.A.M and T.P. Tuong. 2001. Field water management to save water and increase its productivity in irrigated lowland rice. Agric. Water Manag., 49: 11–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(00)00128-1

Bouman, B.A.M., E. Humphreys, T.P. Tuong and R. Barker. 2007. Rice and water. Adv. Agron., 92: 187-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(04)92004-4

Cetin, O. and C. Akinci. 2022. Water and economic productivity using different planting and irrigation methods under dry and wet seasons for wheat. Int J. Agric. Sustain., 20, 844–856. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2021.1999682

Chaudhury, D. and A.K. Ghosh. 1978. Evaluation of agronomic and physico-chemical characteristics of fine and scented rice varieties. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 48: 575-578.

Chen, J. and J. Zhu. 1999. Genetic effects and genotype× environment interactions for cooking quality traits in Indica-Japonica crosses of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Euphytica, 109(1):9-15. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003625829926

Cheng, W., G. Zhang, G. Zhao, H. Yao and H. Xu. 2003. Variation in rice quality of different cultivars and grain positions as affected by water management. Field Crops Research, 80: (3): 245-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(02)00193-4

Crusciol, C.A.C., O. Arf, R.P. Soratto and G.P. Mateus. 2008. Grain quality of upland rice cultivars in response to cropping systems in the Brazilian tropical savanna. Sci. Agricola, 65: (5): 468-473. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162008000500004

Cruz, N. de la. and G.S. Khush. 2000. Rice grain quality evaluation procedures. Chapter 3. P. 15-28. In: Singh, R.K., U.S. Singh, and G.S. Kush. Aromatic Rices. Los Banos, Philippines, International Rice Research Institute. Mohan Primlani for Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 66 Janpath, New Delhi 110 001. Printed at Chaman Enterprises, 1603, Pataudi House, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110 002. ISBN 81-204-1420-9.

Cruz, N. de la., I. Kumar, R.P. Kaushik and G.S. Khush. 1989. Effect of temperature during grain development on stability of cooking quality components in rice. Japanese J. Breeding, 39: (3): 299-306. https://doi.org/10.1270/jsbbs1951.39.299

da Silva, J.T., A.D.S. de Campos, P.A. Timm, M.V. Bueno, J.M.B. Parfitt and G. Concenço. 2018. Soil water tension and rice grain quality. Revista de Ciências Agrárias, 41: (2): 502-509. https://doi.org/10.19084/RCA17185

Dabney, S.M. and B.J. Hoff. 1989. Influence of Water Management on Growth and Yield of No-till Planted Rice. Crop sci., 29(3): 746-752. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1989.0011183X002900030042x

Danbaba, N., J.C. Anounye, A.S. Gana, M.E. Abo, M.N. Ukwungwu and A.T. Maji. 2012. Physical and pasting properties of ‘ofada’rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties. Niger. Food J., 30: (1): 18-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0189-7241(15)30009-6

Darzi-Naftchali, A., H. Ritzema, F. Karandish, A. Mokhtassi-Bidgoli and M. Ghasemi-Nasr. 2017. Alternate wetting and drying for different subsurface drainage systems to improve paddy yield and water productivity in Iran. Agricultural Water Management, 193: 221-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.08.018

de Oliveira, M., C.D. Ferreira, G.H. Lang and C.V. Rombaldi. 2020. Brown, White and Parboiled Rice. Chapter 2. p 25-45. In: de Oliveira A.C., C. Pegoraro and E.V. Viana. The Future of Rice Demand: Quality Beyond Productivity. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37510-2_2

Fageria, N.K. 2007. Yield physiology of rice. J. plant nutr., 30 (6): 843-879. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226510701374831

Fawibe, O. O., M. Hiramatsu, Y. Taguchi, J. Wang and A. Isoda. 2020. Grain yield, water-use efficiency, and physiological characteristics of rice cultivars under drip irrigation with plastic-film-mulch. J. Crop Improv., 34: (3): 414-436. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2020.1725701

Hasan, S. and R.J. Henry. 2020. Wild Oryza for Quality Improvement. Chapter 13. p 299-329. In: de Oliveira A.C., C. Pegoraro and E.V. Viana. The Future of Rice Demand: Quality Beyond Productivity. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37510-2_13

Hassan, H.M., A.B. EL-Abd and N.M. El-Baghdady. 2011. Combining Ability for some root, physiological and grain quality traits in rice (Oryza sativa L.) under water deficit conditions. J. Agric. Res. Kafr El-Sheikh Univ., 37: (2): 239 – 256.

Huang, D.F., L.L. Xi, Z.Q. Wang, L.J. Liu and J.C. Yang. 2008. Effects of Irrigation Patterns during Grain Filling on Grain Quality and Concentration and Distribution of Cadmium in Different Organs of Rice. Acta Agronomica Sinica, 34: (3): 456–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1875-2780(08)60019-X

Huang, M., Y. Zou, P. Jiang, B. Xia, Y. Feng, Z. Cheng and Y. Mo. 2012. Effect of tillage on soil and crop properties of wet-seeded flooded rice. Field Crops Research, 129: 28-38.

Ishfaq, M., N. Akbar, S.A. Anjum and M. Anwar-ul-Haq. 2020. Growth, yield and water productivity of dry direct seeded rice and transplanted aromatic rice under different irrigation management regimes. J. Integr. Agric., 19: (11): 2656-2673. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62876-5

Ishfaq, M., N. Akbar, U. Zulfiqar, N. Ali, M. Ahmad, S.A. Anjum and M. Farooq. 2021. Influence of water management techniques on milling recovery, grain quality and mercury uptake in different rice production systems. Agricultural Water Management, 243: 106500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106500

Jabran, K., E. Ullah, M. Hussain, M. Farooq, U. Zaman, M. Yaseen and B.S. Chauhan. 2015. Mulching improves water productivity, yield and quality of fine rice under water‐saving rice production systems. J. agron. crop sci., 201: (5): 389-400. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12099

Jabran, K., M. Riaz, M.Hussain, W. Nasim, U. Zaman, S. Fahad and B.S. Chauhan. 2017. Water-saving technologies affect the grain characteristics and recovery of fine-grain rice cultivars in semi-arid environment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 24: (14): 12971-12981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8911-y

Jain, N., S. Jain, N. Saini and R.K. Jain. 2006. SSR analysis of chromosome 8 regions associated with aroma and cooked kernel elongation in Basmati rice. Euphytica, 152: (2): 259-273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-006-9212-6

Jennings, P.R., W.R. Coffman, and H.E. Kauffman. 1979. Rice improvement: Grain Quality. Chapter 6, p. 101-120. International Rice Research Institute. Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines.

Kaur, J., S.S. Mahal and A. Kaur. 2017. Grain quality assessment of direct seeded basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.) under different irrigation regimes in Indian Punjab. J. Appl. Nat. Sci., 9: (2): 663-668. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v9i2.1254

Khush, G., C. Paule and N. de la Cruz. 1978. Rice grain quality evaluation and improvement at IRRI. In: Proceedings of the workshop on chemical aspects of rice grain quality, 1979; Los Banos, Philippines, Int. Rice Res. Institute, pp. 21-31.

Kukal, S.S. 2004. Water-saving irrigation scheduling to rice (Oryza sativa) in indo-gangetic plains of India. In: Huang, G., and L.S. Pereira, eds. Land and water management: decision tools and practices, 2004; China Agricultural University: Beijing, China, pp. 83–87.

Lampayan, R.M., K.C. Samoy-Pascual, E.B. Sibayan, V.B. Ella, O.P. Jayag, R.J. Cabangon and B.A.M. Bouman. 2015b. Effects of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) threshold level and plant seedling age on crop performance, water input, and water productivity of transplanted rice in Central Luzon, Philippines. Paddy and Water Environment, 13: (3): 215-227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-014-0423-5

Lampayan, R.M., R.M. Rejesus, G.R. Singleton and B.A.M. Bouman. 2015a. Adoption and economics of alternate wetting and drying water management for irrigated lowland rice. Field Crops Research, 170: 95-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2014.10.013

Lv, Y.F., Y.F. Ren, D. Liu, Y.C. Zhang and J.Y. He. 2016. Effect of Different Water Managements on Growth, Grain Yield and Quality of Rice. Tianjin Agricultural Science, 22: 106–110.

Maclean, J.L., D.C. Dawe, B. Hardy and G.P. Hettel. 2002. Rice almanac: Source book for the most important economic activity on earth. 3rd ed. International Rice Research Institute DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851996363.0000

Mancosu, N., R.L Snyder, G. Kyriakakis and D. Spano. 2015. Water scarcity and future challenges for food production. Water, 7: (3): 975-992. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7030975

Mote, K., V.P. Rao, V. Ramulu, K.A. Kumar and M.U. Devi. 2021. Performance of rice (Oryza sativa (L.)) under AWD irrigation practice—A brief review. Paddy and Water Environment, 20, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-021-00873-4

Moya, P., L. Hong, D. Dawe and C. Chongde. 2004. The impact of on-farm water saving irrigation techniques on rice productivity and profitability in Zhanghe Irrigation System, Hubei, China. Paddy Water Environment, 2: 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-004-0063-2

Mundy, K.J., J.S. Godber, S.M. Dabney and R. Rao. 1989. Processing characteristics of long-grain rice grown under sprinkler or flood irrigation. Cereal Chem, 66: (1): 42-46.

N. Dela-Cruz, and G.S. Khush. 2000. Rice grain quality evaluation procedures”. In R. K. Singh, U. S. Singh, & G. S. Khush (Eds.), Aromatic rice (pp. 15–28), 2000. New Delhi, Calcutta: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.

Pandey, A., A. Kumar, D.S. Pandey and P.D. Thongbam. 2014. Rice quality under water stress. Indian J. Adv. Plant Res, 1: (2): 23-26.

Patel, D.P., A. Das, G.C. Munda, P.K. Ghosh, J. S. Bordoloi and M. Kumar. 2010. Evaluation of yield and physiological attributes of high-yielding rice varieties under aerobic and flood-irrigated management practices in mid-hills ecosystem. Agricultural Water Management, 97: (9): 1269-1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2010.02.018

Renmin, W., and D. Yuanshu. 1989. Studies on ecological factors on ecological factors of rices from heading to maturity I. Effect of different soil moisture content on fertilization, grain-filling and grain quality of early indica rice. J Agric Zhejiang Univ. J. Zhejiang Agric. Univ., 15(1):14-20.

Richards, M. and B.O. Sander. 2014b. Info Note: Alternate wetting and drying in irrigated rice. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Denmark pp. 6 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089c0ed915d3cfd0003f4/info-note_CCAFS_AWD_final_A4.pdf

Richards, M. and B.O. Sander. 2014a. Alternate wetting and drying in irrigated rice. Climate-Smart Agriculture Practice Brief. CCAFS Briefs (711). Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Denmark. Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/35402

Rohilla, R., V.P.Singh, U.S Singh., R.K. Singh. and G.S. Khush. 2000. Crop Husbandry and Environmental Factors Affecting Aroma and Other Quality Traits. p. 201-216. In: Singh, R.K., U.S. Singh, and G.S. Kush. Aromatic Rices. Mohan Primlani for Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 66 Janpath, New Delhi 110 001. Printed at Chaman Enterprises, 1603, Pataudi House, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110 002. ISBN 81-204-1420-9.

Samonte, S.O.P.B., L.T. Wilson, A.M. McClung. and L.Tarpley. 2001. Seasonal dynamics of nonstructural carbohydrate partitioning in 15 diverse rice genotypes. Crop science, 41: (3): 902-909. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2001.413902x

Sandhu, S.S., S.S. Mahal. and A. Kaur. 2014. Quality and productivity of rice as influenced by planting methods, nitrogen levels and irrigation scheduling in Northwest India. Oryza, 51: (4): 289-296.

Sanusi, M.S., R. Akinoso and N. Danbaba. 2017. Evaluation of physical, milling and cooking properties of four new rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties in Nigeria. Int. Food Stud., 6: (2) :245-256. https://doi.org/10.7455/ijfs/6.2.2017.a10

Singh, R.K. and U.S. Singh. 1997. Indigenous scented rices: farmers perception and commitment. Paper Presented During International Conference on Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots level, January 11-14, 1997; Hyderabad: p. 11-14.

Singh, V.P. 2000. The Basmati rice of India. Chapter 8. p. 135-154. In: Singh, R.K., U.S. Singh and G.S. Khush. Aromatic Rices. Los Banos, Philippines, International Rice Research Institute. Mohan Primlani for Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 66 Janpath, New Delhi

Sood, B.C., E.A. Siddiq. and F.U. Zaman. 1983. Genetic analysis of kernel elongation in rice. Indian J. Genet, 43: (1): 40-43.

Srinivasulu, P., V. Ramulu, M.U. Devi. and G. Sreenivas. 2018. Influence of Irrigation Regimes and Nitrogen Levels on Growth, Yield and Water Productivity of Rice under Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) Method of Water Management. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 7: (4): 3307-3311. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.704.374

Sultana, S., M. Faruque. and M.R. Islam. 2022. Rice grain quality parameters and determination tools: a review on the current developments and prospects,” Int. J. Food Prop., 25(1): 1063-1078, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2022.2071295

Tomlins, K.I., J.T. Manful, P. Larwer. and L. Hammond. 2005. Urban consumer preferences and sensory evaluation of locally produced and imported rice in West Africa. Food quality and preference, 16(1): 79-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2004.02.002

Tuong, T.P. and B.A. Bouman. 2003. Rice production in water-scarce environments, 53-67. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851996691.0053

Wang, F.M., A.N. Zhang, G.L. Liu, J.G. Bi, Y. Liu, L.J. Luo. and X.Q. Yu. 2018. Effects of Dry Seeding and Drought Irrigation on Grain Yield and Quality of Rice. China Rice, 24: 73–75.

Xie, G.H., J.C. Yang. and Z.Q. Wang. 2001. Grain filling characteristics of rice and their relationships to physiological activities of grains. Acta Agronomica Sinica, 27: (5): 557-565.

Yang, J., K. Liu, Z. Wang, Y. Du. and J. Zhang. 2007. Water-saving and high-yielding irrigation for lowland rice by controlling limiting values of soil water potential. J. Integr. Plant Biol., 49: (10): 1445–1454. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1672-9072.2007.00555.x

Yao, F., J. Huang, K. Cui, L. Nie, J. Xiang, X. Liu, W. Wu, M. Chen and S. Peng. 2012. Agronomic performance of high-yielding rice variety grown under alternate wetting and drying irrigation. Field Crop Research, 126: 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2011.09.018

Zahid, S., M. Ali, Ahmed. and N. Iqbal. 2020. Improvement of soil health through residue management and conservation tillage in rice-wheat cropping system of Punjab, Pakistan. Agronomy 10(12): 1844. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10121844

 Zhang, H., B.J. Ma, C.M. Zhang, B.H. Zhao, J.J. Xu, S.M. Shao, J.F. Gu, L.J. Liu, Z.Q. Wang. and J.C. Yang. 2020. Effects of alternate wetting and drying irrigation during the whole growing season on quality and starch properties of rice. J. Yangzhou Univ. (Agric. Life Sci. Ed.)., 41: 1–8.

Zhang, H., S. Zhang, J. Yang, J. Zhang. and Z. Wang. 2008. Postanthesis moderate wetting drying improves both quality and quantity of rice yield. Agron. J., 100: (3): 726-734. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2007.0169

Zhang, Y., W. Wang, S. LI, K. Zhu, X. Hua, M.T. Harrison, K. Liu, J. Yang, L. Liu. and Y. Chen. 2023. Integrated management approaches enabling sustainable rice production under alternate wetting and drying irrigation. Agricultural Water Management, 281, 108265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108265