Research Article

Status of Ethno-Veterinary Medicine in the Management of Dairy Animals in Nigeria

Mathew O. Ayoola1*, Akingbolabo D. Ogunlakin2, Abel O. Oguntunji1

1Animal Science and Fisheries Management Unit, College of Agriculture Engineering and Science Bowen University, P. M. B. 284, Iwo, Osun State Nigeria; 2Phytomedicine, Molecular Toxicology, and Computational Biochemistry Research Laboratory (PMTCB-RL), Department of Biochemistry, Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria.

Received | January 31, 2024; Accepted | April 15, 2024; Published | February 13, 2025

*Correspondence | Mathew O. Ayoola, Animal Science and Fisheries Management Unit, College of Agriculture Engineering and Science Bowen University, P. M. B. 284, Iwo, Osun State Nigeria; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Ayoola MO, Ogunlakin AD, Oguntunji AO (2025). Status of Ethno-Veterinary Medicine in the Management of Dairy Animals in Nigeria. J. Anim. Health Prod. 13(1): 88-105.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.jahp/2025/13.1.88.105

ISSN (Online) | 2308-2801

Copyright © 2025 Kumar et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

The rearing of livestock is a major component of agricultural production, as it supplies animal protein for human consumption. The livestock industry provides a major source of revenue to the government (Akpa et al., 2012). The industry is an integral part of Nigerian socio-economic development; with over 13 million households involved at various levels of production scale (FAOSTAT, 2018).

Dairy animals in Nigeria are raised through extensive system of production, practised majorly by smallholders and nomadic herders. Diseases in dairy animal production are responsible for major losses in the quantity and quality of dairy products and threaten epidemiology, while zoonotic ones can be a threat to human health. Nomadic herders are majorly rural settlers who engaged in ethno-veterinary medicine (EVM), to treat and prevent diseases in animals. These practices were widespread in part due to the lack or inadequate modern veterinary services in rural areas and the nomadic nature of herders (Aremu et al., 2012; Akpa et al., 2012).

The evolution and history of EVMs can be traced back along with human existence. It involves the application of medicinal plants (MPs), acupuncture (local surgical techniques or anaesthesia), and traditional techniques to prevent and treat different livestock diseases. It is indigenous knowledge that may involve selective breeding practices, manipulation of animal feeds and behaviour, and knowledge of livestock vectors, pathogens, hosts, and causative agents (Adhikari et al., 2018; Adeniran et al., 2020; Ayoola et al., 2020; Alabi et al., 2021). It is a dynamic field of evolution practices, and because of its dynamism, the development and acceptability have not commiserated with the effectiveness. Several indigenous medicinal plants have been identified for treating a wide range of animal diseases, many of which have been developed through trial and error with replication via deliberate experimentation (Eshetu et al., 2015; Nodza et al., 2022).

However, limited information is available about these EVM practices (Aderemi et al., 2010), although the sector is experiencing improvement in modern veterinary care of livestock and the production of potent drugs and vaccines; it is crucial to evaluate and possibly integrate our indigenous knowledge into modern practices since most of the available modern products are imported with their constraints. Therefore, this review aims to reiterate the importance of medicinal plants and other indigenous knowledge used in ethno-veterinary management in the treatment of dairy animal diseases towards livestock development in Nigeria.

Methodology

This is a systematic review using technological tools such as library archives, search engines, search online Library Academic Resources (SOLAR), generic search engines (google and Google Scholar), and peer-reviewed scholarly articles.

Scope of Ethno-Veterinary Medicine in Nigeria

EVM is a scientific study that evaluates a holistic interdisciplinary study of indigenous knowledge, sociocultural myths and tales, and environmental ideology associated with animal health and husbandry (Xiong and Long, 2020). It is been referred to as alternative medicine, comprising religious practices, indigenous surgical techniques, indigenous immunization, and the use of herbal or plant materials as a treatment for livestock diseases (Verma et al., 2020; Tilahum et al., 2019). The indigenous knowledge has cultural nomenclature (Sukanya, 2022). According to Schillhorn van Veen (1997), the American Veterinary Medicine Association (AVMA) endorsed some of the indigenous veterinary knowledge as acceptable for use by registered veterinarians. There is considerable expansion in the application of indigenous knowledge in both humans and animals, as evident in the USA where several people who visited traditional healers are more than those treated at primary health care (Fakunang et al., 2011). The World Health Organisation (WHO) reported that at least 80% of people in developing countries largely depend on indigenous knowledge for the control and treatment of both human and animal diseases (Jabbar et al., 2006). According to Neils et al (2008), 64.28% of cattle farmers treat the animals using their knowledge of ethno-veterinary medicine whilst 15.31% call for veterinary services (orthodox medicine) and 20.41% combine ethno-veterinary and orthodox medicine in Nigeria.

The regular use of synthetic drugs and chemicals has contributed to the loss of an animal’s natural resistance and carcinogenic remnants in the tissue and animal products (Worku, 2018). Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health issue which has been attributed partly to the misuse and overuse of antimicrobial agents in food production for disease prevention and as growth promoters. The use of EVM practices is an alternative to antibiotics, a therapeutic approach to treating diseases of dairy cattle which has been endorsed in India as a veterinary practice under the One Health Initiative (Sukanya, 2022).

Ethno-Veterinary Practice in Nigeria’s Dairy Industry

The milk production in Nigeria has witnessed a significant growth of 1.89% which represents 229,000 tons in 1972 to 531,587 tons in 2021. The milk market in Nigeria is projected to grow by 6.56% within the next five years at a market value of $27 billion in 2028. Nigeria’s demand for milk is projected to be about 1.7 million tons/year, and over 90% of the annual milk production is from low-input cattle under pastoral management systems (FAO, 2018). Nigeria’s dairy industry has the 5th largest herd in Africa, the cattle population is concentrated in the northern part of the country. About 99% of the country’s herd population are indigenous breeds, while 1% consist of exotic and improved dairy cattle raised on semi-intensive and intensive management systems (FAOSTAT, 2018). Thus, there is an opportunity for both local and foreign investment to bridge the demand in the dairy industry.

The history of the use of EVM in Nigeria is not well documented but can be traced back to the 15th century when Fulani pastoralists settled in the northern part of Nigeria (Okediji, 1973). EVM plays a significant role in the development of the Nigerian dairy industry, where indigenous knowledge and practices are employed to manage and treat livestock diseases and maintain healthy herds. The practice of EVM as a remedy for animals’ diseases has been in existence for centuries when modern veterinary health delivery is rare. However, the advent of the modern veterinary medical system did not stop the EVM practice among the Fulani pastoralists (Babalobi and Olurounbi, 2022) Pastoralists and livestock farmers have developed diverse utilization of local plant species, they have explored their medicinal properties, and their applications in treating various animal ailments. This wealth of knowledge has been passed down through generations, making it an integral part of the nation’s dairy industry.

Ethno-veterinary practices in Nigeria’s dairy industry are centered on the culture and beliefs of the local communities. These practices are not only a means of maintaining animal health but also a way of preserving cultural heritage and strengthening community bonds. The EVM practices in Nigeria may be in the form of rituals invoking ancestral spirits and conducting rights to seek protection and healing for the livestock. Others may involve incisions at certain parts of the animal, or surgical operations (Babalobi and Olurounbi, 2022). It may also involve the utilization of animal products, such as honey, milk, and even specific animal organs. These products are used in various formulations and remedies to treat livestock ailments. In some cases, honey may be applied topically to wounds for its antimicrobial properties, while milk is used to create nutritious concoctions for young or ailing animals.

In Nigeria, farmers in many regions use specific soil types to supplement the mineral dietary needs of their livestock (Lawal-Adebowale, 2012). This is used to provide essential minerals like calcium or phosphorus, which are crucial for bone health and reproduction. Soil, particularly clay or mineral-rich earth, is sometimes consumed by animals to aid in digestion or to counteract toxins. Ethno-veterinary medicine often relies on keen observation of animal behavior and symptoms to diagnose illnesses. Indigenous knowledge has developed a deep understanding of the behavioral cues and changes in livestock that may indicate underlying health issues. For example, changes in the gait, appetite, or vocalization of cattle can provide valuable diagnostic information.

Beyond medicinal treatments, pastoralists in Nigeria also incorporate complementary therapies such as massage, acupuncture, or the use of specific objects like amulets and talismans believed to have protective or healing properties. The use of herbs comprises the largest component of the diverse therapeutic elements of EVM healthcare practices (Nodza et al., 2020). In recent years, there have been various researches and documentation of plant parts used in EVM yet much of such information is still with conflicting reports (Nodza et al., 2020; Menzir, 2020).

Routes of Administration and Preparations of EVM

The route of administration is the channel through which the medication form is administered into the body for the treatment of disorders. The different routes of administration marked the role of treatment and bio-availability of the active drug in the body. EVM is prepared in various forms which include liquids, ointments, powders and pills. They can also be administered as additives in feed, oral supplements as a mixture or single dosage form (Verma et al., 2020). Other indigenous treatments include surgical techniques and branding which are used as a healing process for bone fractures and skin irritation (Oyda, 2017). EVM are administered to livestock as vaccines, vapours, massage, suppositories, intranasal or as a bath for skin problems (Verma et al., 2020; Yirga 2012; Oyda 2017). Others are:

Drenching: This involves the oral administration of medication through persuasion or usually by force in livestock management (Mequanent et al., 2017; Oyda 2017). Drenching can be achieved by utilizing a spoon, dropper, or sorghum straw in the mouth, or administered to an animal using a bottle gourd, a calabash spoon, or a plastic drink bottle (Yirga 2012; Oyda 2017). Animals should be restrained appropriately while applying this method. Drenching is a method for administering fluids at risky moments. It is an effective way to support dairy cows in a variety of circumstances, such as when the cows are recovering after a cesarean section, experiencing diarrhoea, or after giving birth. Cows are frequently dehydrated (or at risk of dehydration) in these situations, and drenching is an effective remedy. Drenching is frequently an effective way to give the cow a boost by re-establishing the fluid metabolism.

Additives: Additives are substances or preparations that are purposefully added to feed or water to carry out one or more of these functions: To increase the quality of feed and foods from animal origin (such as meat, fish, milk, and eggs) and hence the animals’ health and performance. When sick animals are kept apart from other animals while eating and drinking, medications can be given into their feed and water. The remainder of the feed may then be given to the animal after the medication has been blended with or sprinkled on an initial amount to ensure that the complete dose is consumed. Similarly to this, liquid medications can be initially combined with a small amount of water (Oyda 2017; Menzir and Adeladlew, 2020).

Fumigation: This involves the use of smoke or fumes to drive away or eradicate insects and other pests that are frequently found on the skin of livestock (Oyda, 2017). They lay eggs in fresh cattle droppings and the adult usually migrates to host animals to continue the cycle (Mequanent et al., 2017; Menzir and Adeladlew, 2020). Control may be achieved by the use of dust bags, sprays, oilers, and mineral or feed additives. Self-­ applicators are most effective when cattle are forced to use them daily. Cattle sprayed by ground sprayer or aerial ULV (ultra low volume) sprayer require repeated treatments. In clay pots or outside, powdered particles or dried leaves, dung, bark, etc. are burned. The sick animal or the entire herd is engulfed in smoke. Additionally, animal houses can be fumigated (Yirga 2012; Oyda 2017).

Nasal and eye drops: The body openings can be used to detect early health deviations before infections reach the threshold of debilitative effects, an infected animal communicates a physiological disturbance by vocalisation and/or visual cues. While a healthy animal communicates its good health status by active display and movement of the body parts in response to its environment, a sick animal manifests its health situation by looking dull, by being self-isolated from the stock, by being sluggish or by refusing to move on when approached or to be fed. Although the communicated cues by a farm animal are determined by the kind of physiological impairment experienced by the animal, farmers’ understanding of the specific communication cues by the farm animals would make quick detection of any laden disease in the animals possible and stimulate prompt health care service provision. Liquid medicines can be applied to the eyes or nostrils with a dropper, straw or folded leaf (Dharani et al., 2015; Mequanent et al., 2017).

Skin application: Skin maladies in farm animals are primarily due to bacterial, viral or fungus (Guarnieri and Sauvé, 2022). Endocrine skin diseases, tumour conditions, wholesome skin illness and skin defects through injuries are common in farm animals. Skin conditions with notable discharge from injury or body openings are basically due to bacterial contamination, while parasitic skin infections may be caused by ticks, lice, vermin, insects and flies (Guarnieri and Sauvé, 2022). Different strategies are utilized according to Mequanent et al. (2017) which include; a poultice (a soft heated preparation) which involves using a damp cloth on a sore or abscess, a warm stone or application of ointment on the wound (Oyda, 2017). Poultices are produced through a gel made by crushing seeds of medicinal plants, natural products, barks and/or roots of plants, etc., and including a small amount of water. The gel or ointment is applied to the skin and in some cases secured by gauze or strips of banana leaf. Skin diseases in an animal may also be treated with powder medication, lotions and ointments. Medicated ointments may be rubbed into the skin. Treatments are produced by blending plant materials with animal fat. Be that as it may, vegetable oils, vaseline and lanoline can also be utilized. In addition, animals may be washed with medicated solutions, either their entire bodies or only the affected regions of the skin. (Dharani et al., 2015; Mequanent et al., 2017).

Rectal and/or vaginal application: The rectum represents a body cavity in which drugs can be easily introduced and retained and from which absorption is well possible. EVM can be applied through the rectum rather than orally in cases of nausea and vomiting in animals. The mechanism of drug absorption from the rectum is probably not different to that in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract, even though the physiological circumstances (e.g. pH, fluid content) differ substantially. Medication via the rectum requires adequate precaution from the handler to ensure good hygiene during application. Powdered medication may be made into a little ball, that is carefully pushed through the animal’s rectum. When the ball is dry, it may be plunged into water or oil to ease the passage. Alternatively, syringes are used to introduce the medication via the rectum of the animals (Dharani et al., 2015; Mequanent et al., 2017). EVM also employs the application of medication through the birth opening (vulva) with cleanser and warm water (Sukanya, 2022).

Medicinal Plants and Route of Application for Ruminant (Dairy) Animals

Medicinal plants (MPs) form the basis of ethno-veterinary medicine as diverse species are made available for the treatment of different ailments in livestock production. Literature has documented different types of MPs used across the globe (Adekunmi et al., 2020; McGaw et al., 2020; Guler et al., 2021; Chaachouay et al., 2022). In Nigeria, major production constraints facing herdsmen have been diseases (59%), and feed (37%) and farmers resulted to the use of leaves, barks, and roots of plants or their combinations as a treatment for varied disease conditions (Niels et al., 2008; Offiah et al., 2012; Tilahun et al., 2019). Leaf was the most common plant part used in the preparation of remedies with 33% usage, followed by the whole plant (10%), latex, and bark ranked (8%) respectively, while fruits, flowers, and tender leaf accounted for (6%) usage respectively (Tefera and Kim, 2019). Other plant parts are shown in Figure 1.

It can be suggested that the wider use of leaves may be related to fast and easier means of preparation as compared to other plant parts used in ethno-veterinary medicine. Leaves from various plant species are frequently used in EVM for their therapeutic properties. They are often rich in essential oils, flavonoids, and other bioactive compounds. Examples include the use of eucalyptus leaves for their antimicrobial properties in respiratory treatments, and the utilization of aloe vera leaves for their anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects. The bark of certain trees and shrubs is valued for its medicinal properties. Many barks contain compounds such as alkaloids and tannin that have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and astringent qualities. Barks comprise nearly one-third of the medicinal plant products traded and used in Nigeria’s ethno-veterinary medicine (Cunningham, 2001), For instance, cinchona bark is the source of quinine, an important treatment for malaria, while willow bark contains salicin, a precursor to aspirin, used for pain relief.

 

 

Roots are another vital part of medicinal plants, known for their potential therapeutic value. They often contain alkaloids, glycosides, and other bioactive constituents. Roots are the source of crucial drugs that have therapeutic potential. The development of EVM from plant roots could encourage drug companies to consider large-scale pharmacological screening of herbs. Ginseng roots, for example, are used to enhance energy and reduce stress, while the root of the liquorice plant is utilized for its anti-inflammatory and soothing properties (Ghillean, 2001). Seeds are often rich in essential oils, proteins, and other active compounds that contribute to their medicinal value. They are often included in animal feed and used for managing digestive disorders (Ajayi and Ojelere, 2013). Fruits are very rich sources of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and phytochemicals. It contains a high range of water, between 80 to 90 per cent with a less amount of protein, fat, salt and sugar. They are prospective sources of soluble dietary fibre. It is very high anti-oxidant property helps in the removal of free radicals from the body, and protect against many chronic and infectious diseases. The papaya fruit contains papain, an enzyme with digestive benefits. These fruits, among others, are used in dietary and therapeutic contexts for livestock (Vinita et al., 2020).

The petals and blooms of various flowers are used in indigenous medicine for their unique properties, although less attention is paid to the medicinal importance of the flowers, some of them have been used to treat many diseases (Offiah et al., 2012). Each of these plant parts offers a distinct range of bio-active compounds and therapeutic potential, making them valuable resources in the practice of EVM. Their use has been passed down through generations and continues to be a subject of scientific research and exploration. However, it is possible to use two or more plant parts of the same species while preparing EVM recipes for different, the same, or similar ailments. The application of two or more plant parts could be a strategy to combine different active ingredients to achieve diluent of different potency (Niels et al., 2008; Offiah et al., 2012; Tilahun et al., 2019).

The plant parts may be pounded, crushed, or soaked in cold/boiled water, administered as an ointment, drenched solution, oral, topical, steaming, body bath, and nasal. As reported, most EVM was prepared through crushing, which may be related to its easiness (Monteiro et al., 2011; Ouachinou et al., 2019; Nodza et al., 2020). Water was found to be the common diluent used in the processing of plant materials, which may be partly due to its availability and its ability to dissolve the active ingredients in the plant materials (Noudeke et al., 2017; Xiong and Long, 2020). The oral route accounted for about (60%) of the method of administration, while the dermal and ocular routes were reported to have (20%) and (10%) rates of administration respectively. Other routes of administration as presented in Figure 2 (Tariq et al., 2014; Kebede et al., 2018; Nodza et al., 2022). The details of selected MPs used across Nigeria as shown in Table 1.

Phytoconstituents and Dairy Production

The quality and quantity of milk are dependent on multiple factors, such as the concentration of insulin-like growth factor binding protein – 3 (IGFBP-3), the levels of insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1 and IGF-2), and the presence of receptor (IGF-1R). Increased availability of IGF-1 and IGF-2 for interaction with IGF-1R has the potential to enhance milk yield. This is a result of the treatment’s focus on IGFBP-3. Jafari et al. (2018) provide compelling evidence that IGFBP-3’s N-domain and linker domain interact structurally with IGF-1. Insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBPs) can bind to insulin-like growth

 

Table 1: Selected medicinal plants in Nigeria, part used and their routes of application.

Scientific Name	Family	Local Name (H/F)	Local Name (Y)	Diseases	Parts Used	Routes
Afzelia africana Sm	Fabaceae	Ngaayoohi(F)	Apa-igbo	Bovine pasteurellosis, colic, diarrhea	Stem- bark	oral
Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel) C A Sm	Fabaceae	Doruwa leinde(F)	Igbagbo	Eye inflammation	Stem- bark	Topical
Aspilia africana (Pers.) C. D. Adams	Asteraceae	Nyarki(F)	Yunyun	Pneumonia	Whole plant	Oral
Cochlospermum planchonii hook f	Cochlo-spermaceae	Ambulolooji gaaduru(F)	Gbehutu	Liver diseases	Leaves	Oral
Desmodium gangeticum (L)DC	Fabaceae	Takamahi(F)	Olawo-rokoko	Vomiting	Stem-bark/ leaves	Oral
Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.Gmel.	Euphor-biaceae	Ha’ako(F)	Oro adete	Swelling	Stem- bark	Topical
Hibiscus surattensis Linn.	Malvaceae	Baskoji ladde(F)	Ewe emu, Akonimora	Vomiting	Whole plant	Oral
Kigelia africana (Lam) benth	Bignoniaceae	Killaare(F)	Pandoro	Poisonous bite	Stem- bark	Topical
Mimosa pudica L.	Fabaceae	Ge’nee(F)	Patanmo Padimo	Wound	Leaves	Oral
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC	Fabaceae	Nyanyare kaduuru(F)	Ewe-ina Yerepe	Wound	Seed	Oral
Musa paradaisica L.	Musaceae	Kondongji(H)	Ogede agbagba	Foot and mouth disease, constipation	Fruits	Oral
Pennisetum purpureum schum	Poaceae	Tolore(F)	Esun	Constipation	Leaves	Oral
Prunus Africana (hook.f)	Rosaceae	Dan kamaru(H)	Eku	Pneumonia	Leaves	Topical
Pterocarpus erinceus poir	Fabaceae	Madobiiya	Agbelosun Apepo	Pasteurellosis, wound, trypanosomiasis, dysentry	Stem-bark /leaves	Oral/topical
Solanum giganteum jacq.	Solanaceae	Ngite na’i(F)	Odu	Rabies	Leaves/ fruits	Oral
Solanum incanum L.	Solanaceae	Huytaare fowru(F)	Igbagba	Pasteurellosis	Leaves/ fruits	Oral
Terminalia glaucescens planch	Combretaceae	Kuulahi(F)	Idi Odan	Liver disease	Stem- bark	Oral
Trema orientalis L.	Ulmaceae	Ajenana(F)	Ofe Afefe	Pneumonia	Stem-bark	Oral
Tridax procumbens L.	Asteraceae	Ciiyawa zomo(F)	Iyalode Muwagun	Wound	Whole plant	Topical
Vernonia guineensis benth.	Asteraceae	Gene naira(F)	Olopa kan	Pneumonia	Leaves	Body bath
Talinum triangulare	Talinaceae	Alenyruwai (H)	Gbure	Feed supplement	Whole plant	Oral
Vernonia amygdalina	Asteraceae	Shuwaka (H)	Ewuro	Diarrhoea, Helminthosis	Leaves	Oral
Telfairia cccidentalis	Cucurbitaceae	Ugu (H)	Ugu	Bacteria infection	Fruit	Oral/ topical
Zea mays (Maize)	Poaceae	Masara (H)	Agbado	Diarrhoea	Grain	Chewing
Elaeis guinensis	Arecaceae	Manja (H)	Epo pupa	Psoroptic mange	Fruit	Ointments
Citrus aurantium	Rutaceae	Lemun Samia (H)	Osan guinguin	Trypanosomiasis	Root bark	Ointments/ topical/oral

 

Key: F=Fulani; H=Hausa; Y=Yoruba; (Eshetu et al., 2015; Uwagie-Ero et al., 2017; Aziz et al., 2020; Nodza et al., 2022).

 

factors (IGFs), namely IGF-1 and IGF-2, and thereby compete with IGF-1R for IGF binding. As a result of this competition, there are ultimately fewer IGFs available to bind to the receptor, which stops the associated signaling cascade from activating. Among the many IGFBP sub types, IGFBP-3 stands out because of its great affinity for both IGF-1 and IGF-2 (Wang et al., 2020). There are notable concentration differences: IGFBP-3 is mostly present in mature cow milk, whereas IGF-1 is mostly present in cow colostrum (Meyer et al., 2017). The mammary glands IGFBP-3 effectively separates IGF-1 and IGF-2 and stops them from uniting with IGF-1R (Cohick, 1998). Because IGF-1R has been connected to lactation and the development of mammary glands, this binding reduces the biological efficacy of IGF-1 and IGF-2, which could have a detrimental impact on milk supply (Mense et al., 2018; Rajoria et al., 2023). It has been documented that alkaloids, terpenoids, and flavonoids boost the synthesis of IGFBPs (Si and Liu, 2014; He et al., 2018; Bharathi et al., 2018; Li et al., 2023). For example, the treatment of apigenin led to a significant rise in the levels of IGFBP-3, and quercetin boosted the endogenous production of IGFBP-3 (Vijayababu et al., 2006; Shukla et al., 2012). Recently, Ayeni et al. (2023) reported that kaempferol, quercetin, and rhamnetin exhibited significant binding affinity to the N-terminal binding site of IGFBP-3. The phytochemistry of the medicinal plants mentioned are presented in Table 2.

Limitations to Ethno-Veterinary Knowledge

Lack of scientific validation: Ethno-veterinary knowledge is often based on anecdotal evidence and empirical observations. The valuation of this knowledge does not meet the rigorous standards of scientific validation (Elgorashi and McGaw, 2019). There are lack of controlled experiments, clinical trials, and data-driven research to confirm the safety, dosage and efficacy of these indigenous remedies. The application of plant extracts, herbs, or other natural substances is often with varied dosages, making it challenging to establish effective and safe treatment regimens (Hosseini et al., 2018). The variability in the quality and composition of medicinal plants can vary significantly depending on factors such as plant species, vegetation and method of preparation. While livestock farmers may have observed positive results from usage, understanding the mechanism of action, and active compounds are limited. All these variability can affect the therapeutic effects of EVM.

Variability in traditional practice/misidentification: Ethno-veterinary practices are rooted in norms, cultural beliefs, and geographical location. The availability of specific plants and resources influences the types of treatment employed. What is effective in one region may not be applicable in another due to these variations (Adekunmi et al., 2020). EVM practices often reflect cultural and societal norms. The culture of a community can impact their approach to animal healthcare. The application of different plant species and their parts in ethno-veterinary remedies adds to the variability. The same plant species can have varying effects based on plant maturity, environmental/soil conditions, and methods of preparation. Indigenous knowledge is often passed down through generations using local dialect, which may not correspond to standardized scientific nomenclature. The lack of consistency in naming due to the language barrier and understanding of botanical characteristics can lead to confusion and mis-identification. Without a deep understanding of botanical characteristics, there is a risk of selecting the wrong plant species, and potentially introducing toxic or ineffective substances as treatments. The effectiveness of EVM can also vary with the genetic characteristics of the animals, which also adds to the complexity and limitations of EVM.

Poor documentation: The lack or ineffective documentation of knowledge has been one of the major setbacks of ethno-veterinary medicine in Nigeria. The herders and farmers are knowledgeable in the use of MPs, yet this knowledge is not documented. The knowledge of EVM has been limited to verbal knowledge transmission. However, the knowledge about EVM retained by farmers is usually recycled within the family and rarely accessible to the public (Belayneh et al., 2012; Fufa et al., 2017). Uwagie_Ero et al. (2017), reported that the knowledge of EVM is on the verge of irreversible loss and decline. Several authors believed that the skill of EVM and the use of MPs is inherent and verbally transmitted to a favourite child, mostly a son.

Modernization: In addition, modernization has brought about changes in people’s lifestyles and led to rapid socio-economic, ecological, and information technology changes. These changes in lifestyles have influenced the use or total loss of EVM (Tefera and Kim 2019; Tuo et al., 2020). In recent times, the whole learning process has been disjointed due to religious belief, and western culture overshadowed by our indigenous knowledge, formal education, philosophy, etc. Modern livestock production which involves the management of large herds also contributed to the adoption of EVM, as modern farmers found it exhausting treating each animal with specific symptoms, as compared to mass vaccination or general treatment (Nodza et al., 2020). In the modern era, the administration of drugs is guided by scientific validation of active ingredients, which can also infer administration. However, the majority of EVM remedies are without scientific validation, standardization, or certification by regulatory bodies. In Nigeria, there has not been a general acceptability of EVM and MPs legal acceptability in the treatment of diseases or ailments in dairy animals (Majekodunmi et al., 2018; Xiong and Long 2020).

Cultural beliefs and myths: Many young people are losing interest in learning about EVM through their parents

 

Table 2: Phytochemistry of the selected medicinal plants.

Botanical name	Plant part (Solvent of extraction)	Compounds isolated from the plants			References
		Flavonoids and its glycosides	Terpenoids and its glycosides	Alkaloids
E. guinensis	Leaves	Apigenin; luteolin			Tahir et al. 2012;
A. africana	Bark (methanol)	Eriodictyol			Vigbedor et al. 2022
	Root bark	3,3′-di-O-methyl ellagic			Vigbedor et al. 2022
T. procumbens	Whole plant	8,3′-dihydroxy-3,7,4′-trimethoxy-6-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl flavone; 6,8,3′-trihydroxy-3,7,4′-trimethoxyflavone; puerarin; esculetin; uercetagetin-3,6,4′-trimethoxyl-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside; luteolin-4′-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	oleanolic acid; betulinic acid;		Mecina et al.2019
	Flower		Β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside		Saxena and Albert, 2005
V. guineensis	Root	Vernoguinamide; physion; erythroglaucin; emodin	hop-17(21)-en-3β-yl acetate; lupeol; betulinic acid; vernoguinoside A; vernoguinoside; β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-glucoside; stigmasterol 3-O-β-D-glucoside; stigmasterol; β-sitosterol; vernoguinoside A; vernoguinoside; stigmasterol 3-O-β-d-glucoside; sitosterol 3-O-β-d-glucoside (4).		Wouamba et al. 2020
	Aerial parts	Vernoguinoflavon; quercetin; luteolin	Vernomelitensin; Vernopicrin; β-amyrin; oleanolic acid; ursolic acid; lupeol; betulinic acid; β-carotene; stigmasterol; β-sitosterol; β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside; 2,3-dihydroxypropyl heptacosanoate; pentacosanoic acid; docosan-1-ol; tritriacontan-1-ol; heptatriacontan-1-ol.		Collins et al. 2020
V. amygdalina	Leaves		Vernopicrin; vernomitensin		Toyang et al. 2013
	leaf and tuber		Vernopicrin; vernomelitensin; pentaisovalerylsucrose		Toyang et al. 2013
	leaves	Epivernodalol; Vernodalinol; 3-amino-5-methylhex-5-enyl 3-amino-6-methylhept-6-enyl terephthalate; cynaroside	vernonioside		Nguyen et al. 2021
	Stem-bark (methanol)	Glucuronolactone	11α-Hydroxyurs-5,12-dien- 28-oic acid-3α,25-olide; 10- Geranilanyl-O -β-D -xyloside; Glucuronolactone; 1 -Heneicosenol O-β- D-glucopyranoside; 6β,10β, 14β-Trimethylheptadecan-15α-olyl-15-O-β -D- glucopyranosyl-1,5β-olide; 4α-Hydroxy -n-pentadecanoic acid; 11α- Hydroxyurs -5,12-dien- 28-oic acid-3α, 25 -olide; 1-Hen eicosanol-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; 10-Geranilanyl-O-β-D-xyloside; 6β,10β,14β-Trimethyl heptadecan-15α-olyl-15-O -β-D- glucopyrano syl-1,5β -olide; vernolide; vernodalol.		IfedibaluChukwu et al. 2020; Ejiofor et al. 2020
	Flower	Isorhamnetin; luteolin; vernolide	Tricosane		Habtamu and Melaku, 2018
K. africana	Root bark (Methanol:DCM)	Kojic acid (5-hydroxy-2-hydroxymethyl-γ-pyrone).			Eyong et al. 2012
	Fruit (MeOH extract)	1-O-deacetyl-2α-methoxykhayanolide; kigelianolide; deacetylkhayanolide E; 1-O-deacetyl-2α-hydroxykhayanolide; khayanolide B; 3-(3, 4-dimethoxyphenyl) acrylic acid; methyl 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) acrylate; 2, 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acrylic acid (p-Coumaric acid); 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) acrylic acid (caffeic acid); 3,6-dihydroxy-2-(3,4-dimethylphenyl)-4H-chromen-4-one; methyl ferulate; Lapachol	Sitosterol		Ogunlakin et al. 2021; Ogunlakin et al. 2023
	stem bark	Atranorin; specicoside; p-hydroxy-cinnamic acid	2β,3β,19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-20-en-28-oic acid		Ogunlakin et al.2021
C. planchonii	Leaves (MeOH)	Genistein			Olotu et al. 2018
	All parts	7,3-dimethyldihydroquercelin, 5,4-dimethylquercelin,	Cochloxanthine; dihydrocochloxanthine, arjunolic acid; 3-O-E-p-coumaroylalphitolic acid, alphitolic acid; 1-hydroxytetradecan-3-one; 3-bisabolen; 2-tridecanone; 3-hexadecanone; 1-dodecanol, l-tetradecanol; 2-pentdecanone; 3-octadecanone; 1-hydroxy-3-hexadecanone; 1-nonadecanol; l-O-acetyl-3-hexadecanone; l-hydroxy-3-oetadecanone.		Ahmad et al. 2021
T. glaucescens	Root bark (methanol extract)		Palmitic Acid;		Ahmad et al. 2021
	Stem bark		Terminalin A; friedelin; β-sitosterol; stigmasterol; lupeol; betulinic acid; β-amyrin		Ejiofor et al. 2020
	Root bark		Termiglaucescin; β-D-glucopyranosyl 2α,3β,6β-trihydroxy-23-galloylolean-12-en-28-oate; arjunglucoside I; sericoside; arjungenin; sericic acid; arjunetin; chebuloside II; 3,3′,4-tri-O-methylelagic acid; 3,3′-di-O-methylelagic acid; β-sitosterol; stigmasterol		Dawé et al. 2017
T. occidentalis	Leaf	kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside; kaempferol			Eseyin et al. 2018
	Seed	4-(2,2-Dimethyl-6-methylene cyclohexylidene)-2-butanol; 3-(3-hydroxybutyl)-2,4,4-trimethyl-2-cyclohexene-1-one; 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid disooctyl ester	9-octadecenoic acid; 10-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid;		Eseyin et al. 2018
E. abyssinica	Latex (DCM)		3-acetyloxy-(3α)-urs-12-en-28-oic methyl ester; lup-20(29)-en-3α,23-diol		Ahmed et al. 2021
	Aerial non-flowering parts	3,3′,4-O-trimethylellagic acid; methyl gallate; gallic acid; 3,3′-dimethylellagic acid-4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside kaempferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside; quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyrnosyl; 1,6-di-O-galloyl-d-glucose; 3,3′,4-tri-O-methyl-4′-O-rutinosyl-ellagic acid; luteolin-7-O-glucoside	Glut-5-en-3-β-ol; ψ-taraxasterol; β-sitosterol glucoside.		El-Hawary et al. 2022
Aspilia africana	Leaves (butanol fraction of MeOH extract)		3β-O-[α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-glucopyransyl-(1→3)-ursan-12-ene; 3β-Hydroxyolean-12-ene; 3β-acetoxyolean-12-ene		Faleye, 2012
	Leaves (MeOH)	Parahydroxy benzaldehyde			Johnson et al. 2017
	Leaves (butanol fraction of MeOH extract)			Oleanolic acid, Ursolic acid, Corosolic acid	Johnson et al. 2017
A. gummifera	Root (ethanol)	Gummiferaosides A, B and C			Ayele et al. 2022
	Stem bark		3-hydroxy-22-(2-((2, 6-dimethyloctyloxy) carbonyl) benzoyloxy)olean-12-en-28-oic acid; 22-(benzoyloxy)-3-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid; 29-benzoyl-3-octadecanoyl stigmasterol; stigmasterol; Δ5-stigmasterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside; 3-O-{β-D-glucopyranosyl (1→2)-[α-L-arabinopyranosyl (1→6)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-oleanolic acid; β-D-glucopyranosyl (1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl 3-O-{β-D-glucopyra-nosyl(1→2)-[α-L-arabinopyranosyl (1→6)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-oleanolate; 3β-{O-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-[O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1→6)]β-D-glucopyranosyloxy}-machaerinic acid γ-lactone; 3β-O-β-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid (1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy]-machaerinic acid γ-lactone; 3β-O-β-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid (1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy]-machaerinic acid γ-lactone; A-homo-3a-oxa-5β-olean-12-en-3-one-28-oic acid	budmunchiamine G; budmunchiamine K; 6‘ξ- hydroxybudmunchiamine K; 9- normethylbudmunchiamine K.	Debella et al. 2020; Ayele et al. 2022
D. gangeticum	Leaves (MeOH)	(6S,9R)-roseoside; kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (nicotiflorin); quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin); β-sitosterol-3-O- β-D-glucopyranoside; protocatechuic acid; kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside.			Phuong et al. 2018
		(17Z,20Z)-hexacosa-17,20-dien-9-one		gangenoid	Phuong et al. 2018
	Leaves	Luteolin; luteolin tetramethyl ether; D-pinitol; methyl salicylate β-D-glucopyranoside; leonuriside A; syringaresinol-4'-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	N,N-dimethyl tetradecane-1-amin; stigmasterol		Phuong et al. 2019
M. pudica	Whole plant (methanol extract)	Quercetin; avicularin; 6,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyl-8-C-[α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranosyl flavone; 5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxy-8-C[β-d-apiose-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glycopyranosyl flavone; 7, 8, 3', 4'-tetrahydroxyl-6-C-[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 --> 2)]-beta-D-glucopyranosyl flavone; 5, 7, 4'-trihydroxyl-8-C-[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-( --> 2)]-beta-D-glucopyranosyl flavone; 5, 7, 3', 4'-tetrahydroxyl-6-C-[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 --> 2)]-beta-D-glucopyranosyl flavone; catcher	Stigmasterol		Tasnuva et al. 2019
M. pruriens	Seed (ethanol extract)		Estra–2ll–en–17–ol, 3yl benzoate		Uchegbu et al. 2013
	Seed (0-5% acetic acid)	1-3:4-dihydroxyphenylalanine;			Uchegbu et al. 2013
	Seed			6,7-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid	Kumar et al. 2016
	Root	Parvisoflavanone; lespedeol; uncinanone C; medicarpin; parvisoflavone B;			Kumar et al. 2016
P. erinceus	leaves	3’,4’,5,7-tetrahydroxy flavone (luteolin); quercetin-3-O- sophoroside; quercetin- 3-0-β-glucose (isoquercitrin); Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside and 3,3’,4’,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone-3- rhamnoglucoside (rutin)			Ouédraogo et al. 2023
	stem bark	5-dodecylresorcinol	Friedelin		Ibrahim et al. 2022
	Root (DCM:MeoH extract)	2,3-Epoxyprocyanidin; angolensin; 7-methoxygenistein; 7-methoxydaidzein; apigenin 7-O-glucoronide; naringenin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	Friedelin; betulin		Feunaing et al. 2022
	Root	Muningin; formononetin; pseudobaptigenin; boutotone; isoliquiritigenin; boutomycone			Feunaing et al. 2022
	Stem bark	Calycosin; homopterocarpin	Friedelin; 2,3-dihydroxypropyl hexacosanoate; stigmasterol glucoside		Toukam et al. 2018
	leaves, trunk bark and root		2,3-dihydroxypropyloctacosanoate; stigmasterol; campesterol; β-sitosteryl-β-D-glucopyranoside		Toukam et al. 2018
H. surattensis	Leaves (ethyl acetate fraction of MeOH extract)	Kaempferol			Yuliet et al. 2020
M. paradisica	Fruit	Syringin; (6S, 9R)-roseoside	sitosterol 3-[2″-O-palmitpyl-myo-inosityl-(1″ → 6′)-β-D-glucopyranoside]; sitoindoside-III; sitoindoside-IV; sitosterol gentiobioside; sitosterol myo-inosityl-β-D-glucoside; 1,1-dimethylallyl alcohol β-glucoside; benzyl alcohol glucoside		Yuliet et al. 2020
	Flower		(24R)-4α,14α,24-trimethyl-5α-cholesta-8,25(27)-dien-3β-ol		Silva et al. 2014
	Tepal extract	Syringin			Silva et al. 2014
	Peel of unripe fruit (ethanol)		31-norcyclolaudenone; cycloeucalenone		Silva et al. 2014
P. purpureum
Z. mays	Stem	tetrahydro-4,6-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1H,3H-furo[3,4-c]furan-1-one			Ren et al. 2009
	Silk	2″-O-α-l-rhamnosyl-6-C-(6-deoxy-xylo-hexos-4-ulosyl)luteolin; 2-O-a-L-rhamnosyl-6-C-3-deoxyglucosyl-3-methoxyluteolin; 6,4-dihydroxy- 3-methoxyflavone -7-O-glucoside			Ren et al. 2009
	Root and its exudate	6-methoxybenzoxazolinone; 6,7-dimethoxybenzoxazolinone; 6R)-7,8-dihydro-3-oxo-α-ionone; (6R,9R)-7,8-dihydro-3-oxo-α-ionol; gallic acid	9-Z-hexadecenoic acid; 6-methoxy-benzoxazolinone; β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (5)		Mohamed et al. 2014
P. africana	Bark		ursolic acid; oleanolic acid; 24-O-trans-ferulyl-2α,3α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid		Maiyoa et al. 2016
	Leaves and bark		β-sitosterol; β-amyrin; β-sitosterol-3-O-glucoside		Maiyoa et al. 2016
C. aurantium	Fruit peel	7-methoxy-8-(3′-methyl-2′-butenyl)-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one (osthol); 4-methoxy-7H-furo[3,2-g]benzopyran-7-one (bergapten); 4-((E)-3′-methyl-5′-(3′′,3′′-dimethyloxiran-2′′-yl)pent-2′-enyloxy)-7H-furo[3,2-g][1]benzopyran-7-one (6′,7′-epoxybergamottin)			Siskos et al. 2008
	Fruit	Haploside C; Sagittatin A; Linderagalactone C; Koparin-2′-methyl ether; 1-O-3, 5-dihydroxyphenyl-(6-O-4-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside; 1-O-3, 5-dihydroxyphenyl-(6-O-3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside; tetra-O-methylscutellarein; sinensetin; nobiletin			Gao et al. 2022
S. giganteum	Leaf			Solanogantamine; isosolanogantamine; stereoisomeric 3-amino solanidanes	Miranda et al. 2015
	Leaf (Methanol extract)		Cycloeucalenone; 24-oxo-31-norcycloartanone; 24-oxo-31-norcycloartanone		Miranda et al. 2015
S. incanum	Fresh berry		Solamargine; solasodine; ursolic acid; 3-O_palmytoyl ursolic acid; 3-O-crotonnyl ursolic acid; 3-O-propionyl ursolic acid		Kaunda and Zhang, 2020
	Fruit	Phenolics; coumarin glucoside	monoterpene glycoside	steroidal glycoalkaloids	Kaunda and Zhang, 2020
T. triangulare	Aerial parts	3-N-(acryloyl, N-pentadecanoyl) propanoic acid; (151S, 17R, 18R)-Ficuschlorin D acid (31,32-didehydro-7-oxo-173-O-phytyl-rhodochlorin-15-acetic acid); Talichorin A (17R, 18R)-phaeophytin b-151-hidroxy, 152,153-acetyl-131-carboxilic acid; (151S, 17R, 18R)-phaeophytin b peroxylactone or (151S, 17R, 18R)-hydroperoxy-ficuschlorin D; 151S, 17R, 18R)-31,32-didehydro-151-hydroxyrhodochlorin-15-acetic acid δ-lactone-152-methyl-173-phytyl ester; 17 (17R, 18R)-purpurin 18-phytyl ester	campesterol; sitosterol; stigmasterol; scotenol		Amorim et al, 2014
	Root	indole-3-carboxylic acid; p-hydroxy benzoic acid; 5,6-dimethoxy-7-hydroxy-8-methyl-flavone; 5,6-dimethoxy-8-methyl-2-phenyl-7H-1-benzopyran-7-one; 4-methoxy-6-(2-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl)-2H-pyran-2-one; 4-methoxy-6-(2-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl)-2H-pyran-2-one			Umeokoli et al. 2016
T. orientalis	Stem	ampelopsin F; epicatechin; catechin; syringaresinol; N-(trans-p-coumaroyl) octopamin; trans-4-hydroxycinnamic acid; 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl-1-O-β -D-glucoside			Kuo et al. 2007
	Trunk and root bark	Methylswertianin; decussatin; sweroside, scopoletin; epicatechin; lupeol; p -hydroxybenzoic acid; 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid; adian-5-en-3-one; (9S*,10S*)-3-[7-(3,10-dihydroxy-9-hydroxymethyl-2,5-dimethoxy)-9,10-dihydrophenanthrenyl]propenal; (9S*,10S*)-3-[7-(5-O-107]β-glucopyranosyl-10-hydroxy-9-hydroxymethyl-2,6-dimethoxy)-9,10-dihydrophenanthrenyl]propenal; (3R*,3aR*,4R*,5S*)-6-O-α-arabinopyranosyl-8-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,3a-dihydrocyclopenta[1,2,3-de]isobenzopyran-1-one (orientosideA).	2a, 3a, 23-trihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid; 2a, 3ß-dihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid; ß-sitosterol; 3- O -ß-glucopyranosyl-ß-sitosterol; hexacosanoic acid		Noungoué Tchamo et al. 2001

 

and grandparents. They believe this knowledge is based on witchcraft and is rarely effective. The situation is exacerbated by the advent of Western faith and religious beliefs. They believe that indigenous practices are evil and sinful. This poor reminiscence and history amongst these generations and adopted Western lifestyle negates the traditional or indigenous values.

Also, taboos, customs, and myths affected the acceptance of ethno-veterinary medicine as affected by the relationship of age, social status, and marital of the individual. The ethno-veterinary medicine therapies have been interwoven into the culture of communities of herders (Aziz et al., 2020), while the seasonal distribution of plants and its application had negative impacts on the adoption of EVM therapies (Guler et al., 2021).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study of ethno-veterinary medicine is a progressive area of interdisciplinary research having great potential to complement modern veterinary medicine. In general, ethno-veterinary medicine has been developed through trial and error and actual experimentation. However, these practices often lack proper documentation and extensive experimental repetition for validation. It is important to enhance this indigenous knowledge, as it could complement modern livestock treatment practices for sustainable dairy production.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge Bowen University for the opportunity to use the University facilities and time to write this article.

NOVELTY STATEMENTS

This systematic review highlights ethno-veterinary medicine’s role in Nigerian dairy production, emphasizing medicinal plants’ potential and need for scientific validation.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS

Mathew O. Ayoola: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software.

Mathew O. Ayoola and Abel O. Oguntunji: Writing, Original draft preparation.

Mathew O. Ayoola, Akingbolabo Ogunlakin and Abel O. Oguntunji: Visualization.

Mathew O. Ayoola, Akingbolabo Ogunlakin and Abel O. Oguntunji: Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES

Adeniran LA, Okpi S, Anjorin TS, Ajagbonna OP (2020). Medicinal plants used in ethnoveterinary practices in the Federal Capital Territory, North-Central Nigeria. J. Med. Plants Res., 14(8): 377–388. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR2020.6975

Adekunmi AO, Ajiboye A, Awoyemi AO, Osundare FO, Oluwatusin FM, Toluwase SOW (2020). Assessment of ethno-veterinary management practices among sheep and goat farmers in Southwest Nigeria. Annual Res. Rev. Biol., 35: 42–51. https://doi.org/10.9734/arrb/2020/v35i330199

Aderemi FA, Alabi OM, Olaleye OO (2010). Assessment of the use of ethno-veterinary medicine in poultry health management in Iwo local government of Osun State. Afri. J. Livest. Extens., 8: 19–21.

Adhikari PP, Talukdar S, Borah A (2018). Ethnomedicobotanical study of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants used for the treatment of reproductive problems in Nalbari district, Assam, India. J. Ethnopharm., 210: 386–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.07.024

Ahmad MH, Jatau AI, Khalid GM, Alshargi OY (2021). Traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of Cochlospermum tinctorium A. Rich (Cochlospermaceae): A review. Future J. Pharm. Sci., 7(1): 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-020-00168-1

Ahmed SR, Al-Sanea MM, Mostafa EM, Qasim S, Abelyan N, Mokhtar FA (2021). A network pharmacology analysis of cytotoxic triterpenes isolated from Euphorbia abyssinica latex supported by drug-likeness and ADMET studies. ACS Omega, 7(21): 13– 22. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c00750

Ajayi IA, Ojelere OO (2013). Chemical composition of ten medicinal plant seeds from South-west Nigeria. Adv. in Life Sci. and Tech, 10: 1–8.

Alabi OM, Ojo JO, Aderemi FA, Lawal, TE, Oguntunji AO, Ayoola MO, Oladejo OA (2021). Antilipemic effect of Moringa oleifera leaf powder on blood serum cholesterol fractions in broiler finishers. Int. J. Livestock Prod., 12(1): 49–52. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJLP2019.0638

Akpa GN, Alphonsus C Abdulkareem A (2012). Evaluation of herd structure of white Fulani cattle holdings in Zaria, Niger. Sci. Res. Essays, 7(42): 3605–3608. https://doi.org/10.5897/SRE11.458

Aremu AO, Finnie JF, Van Staden J (2012). Potential of South African medicinal plants used as anthelmintics—Their efficacy, safety concerns, and reappraisal of current screening methods. S. Afr. J. Botany, 82: 134–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2012.05.007

Ayele TT, Gurmessa GT, Abdissa Z, Kenasa G, Abdissa N (2022). Oleanane and stigmasterol- type triterpenoid derivatives from the stem bark of Albizia gummifera and their antibacterial activities. J. Chem. 57(3): 64-74. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9003143

Ayeni KI, Michael S, Rudolf K, Benedikt W, Chibundu N, Ezekiel (2023). Mycotoxins in complementary foods consumed by infants and young children within the first 18 months of life, Food Control, (144): 109328, ISSN 0956-7135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109328

Ayele TT, Gurmessa GT, Abdissa Z, Kenasa G, Abdissa N (2022). Oleanane and stigmasterol-type triterpenoid derivatives from the stem bark of Albizia gummifera and their antibacterial activities. J. Chem., 57(3): 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9003143

Ayeni KI, Michael, S, Rudolf K., Benedikt W, Ezekiel CN (2023). Mycotoxins in complementary foods consumed by infants and young children within the first 18 months of life. Food Control, 144: 109328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109328

Ayoola MO, Oguntunji AO, Alabi OM, Adekunle D, Akano S (2020). Evaluation of pawpaw seed powder (Carica papaya) as feed additive on blood parameters and libido in male rabbits. Bulg. J. Anim. Husb. Zhivotnovadni Nauki, 57(3): 54–60.

Aziz MA, Khan AH, Pieroni A (2020). Ethnoveterinary plants of Pakistan: A review. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed., 16(25): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.29261/pakvetj/2020.021

Babalobi O, Olurounbi D (2022). Dwindling ethnoveterinary alternative use among Fulani pastoralists: A case study. Acta Sci. Vet. Sci., 4(9): 61–69. https://doi.org/10.31080/ASVS.2022.04.0498

Belayneh Z, Asfaw S, Demissew, S, Bussa F (2012). Medicinal plants potential and use by pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Erer Valley of Babile Woreda, Eastern Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed., 8(1): 12–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-42

Bharathi Priya L, Baskaran R, Huang CY, Vijaya Padma V (2018). Neferine modulates IGF‐1R/Nrf2 signaling in doxorubicin-treated H9c2 cardiomyoblasts. J. Cell. Biochem., 119(2): 1441–1452. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcb.26305

Chaachouay N, Azeroual A, Bencharki B, Douira A, Zidane L (2022). Ethnoveterinary medicine plants for animal therapy in the Rif, North of Morocco. South Afr. J. Bot., 147: 176–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2021.12.037

Cunningham AB. (2001). Applied ethnobotany: People, wild plant use and conservation. Earthscan. ISBN 978-1853836982.

Collins NWS, Mouthé HG, Nguiam PM, Tchamgoue J, Jouda JB, Longo F, Ndjakou Lenta B, Sewald N, Fogue KS (2020). Antibacterial flavonoids and other compounds from the aerial parts of Vernonia guineensis Benth. (Asteraceae). Chem. Biodivers., 9: e2000296.

Cohick, WS. (1998). Role of the insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in lactation. J. Dairy Sci., 81(6): 1769–1777. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(98)75746-7

Dawé A, Talom B, Kapche GD, Siddiqui K, Yakai F, Talla E, Shaiq MA, Lubna I, Ngadjui BT (2017). Termiglaucescin, a new polyhydroxy triterpene glucoside from Terminalia glaucescens with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Z. Naturforsch. C, 72(5–6): 203–208. https://doi.org/10.1515/znc-2016-0178

Debella A, Haslinger E, Schmid MG, Bucar F, Michl G, Abebe D, Kunert O (2000). Triterpenoid saponins and sapogenin lactones from Albizia gummifera. Phytochem., 53(8): 885–892. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00464-1

Dharani N, Yenesew A, Aynekulu E, Tuei B, Jamnadass R (2015). Traditional ethnoveterinary medicine in East Africa: A manual on the use of medicinal plants. The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

El-Hawary SS, Mohammed R, Lithy NM, AbouZid SF, Mansour MA, Almahmoud SA, Huwaimel B, Amin E. (2022). Digalloyl glycoside: A potential inhibitor of trypanosomal PFK from Euphorbia abyssinica JF Gmel. Plants, 11(2): 173. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11020173

Elgorashi EE, McGaw LJ (2019). African plants with in vitro anti-inflammatory activities: A review. South Afr. J. Bot., 126: 142–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.06.034

Ejiofor II, Das A, Mir SR, Ali M, Zaman K (2020). Novel phytocompounds from Vernonia amygdalina with antimalarial potentials. Pharm. Res., 12(1). https://doi.org/10.4103/pr.pr_81_19

Eseyin OA, Daniel A, Paul TS, Attih E, Emmanuel E, Ekarika J, Munavvar Zubaid AS, Ashfaq A, Afzal S, Ukeme A (2018). Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity of the seed of Telfairia occidentalis Hook (Cucurbitaceae). Nat. Prod. Res., 32(4): 444–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2017.1308366

Eshetu GR, Dejene TA, Telila LB, Bekele DF (2015). Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants: Preparation and application methods by traditional healers in selected districts of southern Ethiopia. Vet. World, 8(5): 674–684. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2015.674-684

Eyong KO, Ambassa P, Yimdjo MC, Sidjui LS, Folefoc GN. (2012). A new source of kojic acid isolated from Kigelia africana: A possible precursor for quinone biosynthesis. RASÃYAN J. Chem., 5, 477–480.

FAOSTAT (2018). Statistical databases. Accessed February 2022.

Faleye FJ (2012). Terpenoid constituents of Aspilia africana [Pers.] CD Adams leaves. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res., 13: 138–142.

Feunaing RT, Tamfu AN, Gbaweng AJ, Mekontso Magnibou L, Ntchapda F, Henoumont C, Laurent S, Talla E, Dinica RM (2022). In vitro evaluation of α- amylase and α- glucosidase inhibition of 2,3-epoxyprocyanidin C1 and other constituents from Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. Molecules, 28(1): 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010126

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018). The future of food and agriculture: Alternative pathways to 2050. FAO, Rome.

Fufa T, Melaku M, Bekele T, Regassa T, Kassa N (2017). Ethnobotanical study of ethnoveterinary plants in Kelem Wollega zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia. J. Med. Plants Res., 1: 307–317. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR2016.6200

Gao L, Gou N, Amakye WK, Wu J, Ren J (2022). Bioactivity-guided isolation and identification of phenolic compounds from Citrus aurantium L. with anti-colorectal cancer cells activity by UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS. Curr. Res. Food Sci., 5: 2251–2260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crfs.2022.11.013

Ghillean P. (2001). FRS Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: An introductory address to FAO’s Non-Wood Forest Products Series.

Guarnieri E, Sauvé F (2022). Bovine dermatology: How to approach skin diseases in this species. Can. Vet. J., 63(9): 973–978.

Güler O, Polat R, Karaköse M, Çakilcioglu U, Akbulut S (2021). An ethnoveterinary study on plants used for the treatment of livestock diseases in the province of Giresun (Turkey). South Afr. J. Bot., 142: 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2021.06.003

Habtamu A, Melaku Y (2018). Antibacterial and antioxidant compounds from the flower extracts of Vernonia amygdalina. Adv. Pharm. Pharm. Sci., 14(4): 332–340. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4083736

He Y, Yuan X, Zhou G, Feng A (2018). Activation of IGF-1/IGFBP-3 signaling by berberine improves intestinal mucosal barrier of rats with acute endotoxemia. Fitoterapia, 124: 200–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2017.11.012

Hosseini A, Shorofi SA, Davoodi A, Azadbakht M (2018). Starting dose calculation for medicinal plants in animal studies: Recommendation of a simple and reliable method. Res. J. Pharm., 5(2): 1–7.

Ibrahim M, Idris MM, Dauda U, Ali U, Muhammad A. (2022). Isolation and characterization of friedelin and 5-dodecylresorcinol from the stem bark extract of Pterocarpus erinaceus. J. Sci. a Math. Lett., 10(2): 74-80. https://doi.org/10.37134/jsml.vol10.2.9.2022

IfedibaluChukwu EI, Aparoop D, Kamaruz Z (2020). Antidiabetic, anthelmintic and antioxidation properties of novel and new phytocompounds isolated from the methanolic stem-bark of Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Asteraceae). Sci. Afr., 10, e00578 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00578.

Jabbar A, Raza MA, Iqbal Z, Khan MN (2006). An inventory of the ethnobotanicals used as anthelmintics in the southern Punjab (Pakistan). J. Ethnopharm., 108: 152-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.04.015

Jafari E, Gheysarzadeh A, Mahnam, K, Shahmohammadi R, Ansari A, Bakhtyari H, Mofid MR (2018). In silico interaction of insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 with insulin-like growth factor 1. Res. Pharm. Sci., 13(4): 332. https://doi.org/10.4103/1735-5362.235160

Johnson EC, Etim EI, Archibong EO (2017). Isolation and antioxidant potentials of parahydroxybenzaldehyde from the methanol leaf extract of Aspilia africana (Pers.) CD Adams (Asteraceae). Niger. J. Pharm. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(1): 26-32.

Kaunda JS, Zhang YJ (2020). Chemical constituents from the fruits of Solanum incanum L. Biochem. Syst. Ecol., 90: 104-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2020.104031

Kumar P, Rawat A, Keshari AK, Singh AK, Maity S, De A, Samanta A, Saha S (2016). Antiproliferative effect of isolated isoquinoline alkaloid from Mucuna pruriens seeds in hepatic carcinoma cells. Nat. Prod. Res., 30(4): 460-463. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2015.1020489

Kebede E, Mengistu M, Serda B (2018). Ethnobotanical knowledge of pastoral community for treating livestock diseases in Somali regional state, eastern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 50(6): 1379-1386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-018-1571-1

Kuo WL, Huang YL, Wang ST, Ni CL, Shien BJ, Chen CC (2007). Chemical constituents of Trema orientalis. J. Chin. Med., 18(1): 27-36.

Lawal-Adebowale OA (2012). Dynamics of ruminant livestock management in the context of the Nigerian agricultural system. In Dynamics of Ruminant Livestock Management in the Context of the Nigerian Agricultural System. https://doi.org/10.5772/52923

Li J, Yu J, Zou H, Zhang J, Ren L (2023). Estrogen receptors-mediated health benefits of phytochemicals: A review. Food Funct., 46(5): 464-470.

Maiyoa F, Moodley R, Singh M (2016). Phytochemistry, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis studies of β-sitosterol-3-O-glucoside and β-amyrin from Prunus africana. Afr. J. Trad, Comp. Alt. Med., 13(4): 105-112. https://doi.org/10.21010/ajtcam.v13i4.15

Maine VA, Confessor ET, Rômulo RN (2009). Animals to heal animals: Ethnoveterinary practices in semiarid region, Northeastern Brazil. Biologia, 5: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-37

Majekodunmi AO, Dongkum C, Idehen C, Langs DT, Welburn SC (2018). Participatory epidemiology of endemic diseases in West African cattle: Ethnoveterinary and bioveterinary knowledge in Fulani disease control. One Health, 5: 46-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2018.03.001

Mequanent A, Ayalew G, Addis H (2017). Traditional medicinal plants used in Ethiopia for animal diseases treatment. University of Gondar, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, and College of Computational and Natural Science, Department of Biotechnology. Biomed. Nurs., 3(2): 1-11.

McGaw LJ, Famuyide IM, Khunoana ET, Aremu AO (2020). Ethnoveterinary botanical medicine in South Africa: A review of research from the last decade (2009 to 2019). J. Ethnopharm., 257: 112864. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32270-0

Menzir AT, Adeladlew TA (2020). A review on the status of ethnoveterinary medicine and challenges it faces in Ethiopia. Int. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husbandry, 5(5): 39-48.

Mecina GF, Chia MA, Cordeiro-Araújo MK, Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Varela RM, Torres A, Molinillo JM, Macías FA, da Silva RM (2019). Effect of flavonoids isolated from Tridax procumbens on the growth and toxin production of Microcystis aeruginosa. Aquat. Toxicol., 211: 81-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2019.03.011

Mense K, Heidekorn-Dettmer J, Wirthgen E, Brockelmann Y, Bortfeldt R, Peter S, Jung M, Höflich C, Höflich A, Schmicke M (2018). Increased concentrations of insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP)-2, IGFBP-3, and IGFBP-4 are associated with fetal mortality in pregnant cows. Front Endocrinol., 9: 3-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2018.00310

Meyer Z, Höflich C, Wirthgen E, Olm S, Hammon HM, Höflich A (2017). Analysis of the IGF-system in milk from farm animals: Occurrence, regulation, and biomarker potential. Growth Hormone IGF Res., 35, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ghir.2017.05.004

Miranda MA, Lemos M, Cowart KA, Rodenburg D, McChesney JD, Radwan MM, Furtado NA, Bastos JK (2015). Gastroprotective activity of the hydroethanolic extract and isolated compounds from the leaves of Solanum cernuum Vell. J. Ethnopharm., 172: 421-429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.06.047

Monteiro MV, Bevilaqua C, Palha M, Braga R, Schwanke K, Rodrigues ST, Lameira O. (2011). Ethnoveterinary knowledge of the inhabitants of Marajó Island, Eastern Amazonia, Brazil. Acta Amazonica, 41: 233-242. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672011000200007

Mohamed GA, Ibrahim SR, Abdelkader MS, Al-Musayeib NM, Ghoneim M, Ross SA (2014). Zeaoxazolinone, a new antifungal agent from Zea mays roots. Med. Chem. Res., 23(12): 4627-4630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00044-014-1026-9

NASS (2011). National Bureau of Statistics/Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Collaborative Survey on National Agriculture Sample Survey (NASS): 2010/2011.

Neils JS, Nzalak JO, Sackey AKB, Okpara JO (2008). Ethnoveterinary practices: The perception among the Fulani cattle rearers in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Sokoto J. Vet. Sci., 7(2): 38-41.

Nguyen TX, Dang DL, Ngo VQ, Trinh TC, Trinh QN, Do TD, Thanh TT (2021). Anti- inflammatory activity of a new compound from Vernonia amygdalina. Nat. Prod. Res., 35(23): 5160-5165. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2020.1788556

Nodza GI, Onuminya, TO, Ogbu, P, Agboola OO, Ogundipe OO (2020). Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in treating snakebites in Benue, Nigeria. Annals West Union Timisoara Ser. Biol., 23(2): 147-158.

Nodza GI, Onuminya TO, Igbari AD, Ogundipe OT (2022). Ethno-veterinary practice for the treatment of cattle diseases in the Eastern highlands of Nigeria. Ethnobot. Res. Appl., 24: 7. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.24.7.1-16

Noudeke ND, Dotche I, Ahounou GS, Karim IYKA, Farougou S (2017). Inventory of medicinal plants used in the treatment of diseases that limit milk production of cows in Benin. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res., 4(1): 1-14. https://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2017.d183

Offiah NV, Dawurung CJ, Oladipo OO, Makoshi MS, Makama S, Elisha I, Gotep J, Samuel AL, Shamaki D (2012). Survey of herbal remedies used by Fulani herdsmen in the management of animal diarrhoea in Plateau State, Nigeria. J. Med. Plants Res,. 6: 4625- 4632. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR11.1301

Ogunlakin AD, Sonibare MA, Jabeen A, Shah SF, Shaheen F (2021). Antioxidant and anti- proliferative studies on Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. and its constituents. Trop. J. Nat. Prod. Res., 5(3): 570-575. https://doi.org/10.26538/tjnpr/v4i9.25

Okediji FA (1973). The Cattle Industry in Northern Nigeria, 1900–1939. African Studies Program, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.

Olotu PN, Ahmed A, Kunle OF, Olotu IA (2018). Isolation and characterization of the chemical structure of compound in methanol extract of Cochlospermum planchonii Hook. F (Cochlospermaceae). J. Nat. Sci. Res., 8(2): 84.

Ouédraogo N, Belem-Kabré WL, Thiombiano AE, Traoré TK, Belemnaba L, Ouédraogo M, Guissou IP (2023). Anti-inflammatory potential of glycoside flavonoids from Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. (Fabaceae) leaves. Pharm. J., 15(4): 766-775. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2023.15.125

Ouachinou JM, Dassou GH, Idohou R, Adomou AC, Yedomonhan H (2019). National inventory and usage of plant-based medicine to treat gastrointestinal disorders with cattle in Benin (West Africa). S. Afr. J. Bot., 122: 432-446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.03.037

Oyda S (2017). Review on traditional ethno-veterinary medicine and medicinal plants used by indigenous people in Ethiopia: Practice and application system. Int. J. Res. Granthaalayah, 5(8): 109-119. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v5.i8.2017.2193

Phuong NT, Ha, VT, Anh BK, Long PQ (2018). Some glycosides isolated from Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. of Vietnam. Vietnam J. Sci. Technol., 56(2A): 99-103. https://doi.org/10.15625/2525-2518/56/2A/12635

Rajoria B, Zhang X, Yee D (2023). IGF-1 stimulates glycolytic ATP production in MCF- 7L cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24(12): 10209. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241210209

Ren SC, Liu ZL, Ding XL (2009). Isolation and identification of two novel flavone glycosides from corn silk (Stigma maydis). J. Med. Plants Res., 3(12): 1009-1015.

Saxena VK, Albert S (2005). β-Sitosterol-3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside from the flowers of Tridax procumbens Linn. J. Chem. Sci., 117: 263-266. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02709296

Schillhorn van Veen TW (1997). Sense or nonsense? Traditional methods of animal parasitic disease control. Vet. Parasitol., 71(3-4): 177-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(97)00031-9

Shukla S, MacLennan GT, Fu P, Gupta S (2012). Apigenin attenuates insulin-like growth factor-I signaling in an autochthonous mouse prostate cancer model. Pharm Res., 1506– 1517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11095-011-0625-0

Silva AA, Morais SM, Falcão MJ, Vieira IG, Ribeiro LM, Viana SM, Teixeira MJ, Barreto FS, Carvalho CA, Cardoso RP, Andrade-Junior HF (2014). Activity of cycloartane- type triterpenes and sterols isolated from Musa paradisiaca fruit peel against Leishmania infantum chagasi. Phytomedicine, 21(11): 1419-1423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2014.05.005

Si H, Liu D (2014). Dietary antiaging phytochemicals and mechanisms associated with prolonged survival. J. Nutr. Biochem., 25(6): 581-591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.02.001

Siskos EP, Mazomenos, BE, Konstantopoulou MA (2008). Isolation and identification of insecticidal components from Citrus aurantium fruit peel extract. J. Agric. Food Chem., 56(14): 5577-5581. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf800446t

Sukanya Nair (2022). Ethnoveterinary Medicine: An alternative to antibiotics for the dairy sector. Retrieved from https://www.cseindia.org/ethnoveterinary-medicine-11496

Tariq A, Mussarat S, Adnan M, Abdelsalam NM, Ullah R, Khan AL (2014). Ethnoveterinary study of medicinal plants in a tribal society of Sulaiman range. Sci. World J., 127526. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/127526

Tahir NI, Shaari K, Abas F, Parveez GK, Ishak, Z, Ramli US (2012). Characterization of apigenin and luteolin derivatives from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) leaf using LC– ESI-MS/MS. J. Agric. Food Chem., 60(45): 11201-11210. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf303267e

Tasnuva ST, Qamar UA, Ghafoor K, Sahena F, Jahurul MH, Rukshana H, Juliana MJ, Al-Juhaimi, FY, Jalifah L, Jalal KC, Ali ME (2019). α-glucosidase inhibitors isolated from Mimosa pudica L. Natl. Product Res, 33(10): 1495-1499. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2017.1419224

Tefera BN, Kim YD (2019). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the Hawassa Zuria District, Sidama zone, Southern Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethno., 15(1): 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0302-7

Tilahun M, Etifu M, Shewage T (2019). Plant diversity and ethnoveterinary practices of Ethiopia: A systematic review. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med., 2019: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5276824

Toukam PD, Tagatsing MF, Yamthe LR, Baishya G, Barua NC, Tchinda AT, Mbafor JT, Polack B (2018). Novel saponin and benzofuran isoflavonoid with in vitro anti- inflammatory and free radical scavenging activities from the stem bark of Pterocarpus erinaceus (Poir). Phytochem. Letters, 28, 69-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytol.2018.09.006

Toyang, NJ, Krause MA, Fairhurst RM, Tane P, Bryant J, Verpoorte R (2013). Antiplasmodial activity of sesquiterpene lactones and a sucrose ester from Vernonia guineensis Benth. J. of Ethnopharm., 147(3): 618-621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.03.051

Uchegbu RI, Echeme JO (2013). Isolation and characterization of estra–2ll–en–17–ol, 3yl benzoate from Mucuna pruriens (Utilis). J. Nat. Sci. Res., 3(11): 84.

Umeokoli BO, Muharini R, Okoye FB, Ajiwe VI, Akpuaka MU, Lin W, Liu Z, Proksch P (2016). New C-methylated flavonoids and α-pyrone derivative from roots of Talinum triangulare growing in Nigeria. Fitoterapia, 109: 169-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2016.01.002

Verma P, Thakur AS, Deshmukh K, Jha AK (2020). Routes of drug administration. Int. J. Pharm. Stud. Res., E-ISSN 2229-4619.

Vigbedor BY, Akoto CO, Neglo D (2022). Isolation and characterization of 3, 3′-di-O- methyl ellagic acid from the root bark of Afzelia africana and its antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Sci. Afr., 17: e01332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01332

Vijayababu MR, Arunkumar A, Kanagaraj P, Arunakaran J (2006). Effects of quercetin on insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and their binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) secretion and induction of apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells. J. Carcinog., 5: 10-20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-3163-5-10

Wang EA, Chen WY, Wong CH (2020). Multiple growth factor targeting by engineered insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 augments EGF receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor efficacy. Sci. Represent., 10(1): 2735. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59466-6

Wouamba SC, Happi GM, Lenta BN, Sewald N, Kouam SF (2020). Vernoguinamide: A new ceramide and other compounds from the root of Vernonia guineensis Benth. and their chemophenetic significance. Biochem. Syst. Ecol., 88: 103988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2019.103988

Worku S (2018). Practice of self-medication in Jimma town, Ethiopia. Ethiopian J. Health Development, 17, 111–116. https://doi.org/10.4314/ejhd.v17i2.9851

Xiong Y, Long C (2020). An ethnoveterinary study on medicinal plants used by the Buyi people in Southwest Guizhou, China. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed., 16(1): 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00396-y